Subunit composition of VRAC channels determines substrate specificity and cellular resistance to Pt‐based anti‐cancer drugs

Although platinum‐based drugs are widely used chemotherapeutics for cancer treatment, the determinants of tumor cell responsiveness remain poorly understood. We show that the loss of subunits LRRC8A and LRRC8D of the heteromeric LRRC8 volume‐regulated anion channels (VRACs) increased resistance to clinically relevant cisplatin/carboplatin concentrations. Under isotonic conditions, about 50% of cisplatin uptake depended on LRRC8A and LRRC8D, but neither on LRRC8C nor on LRRC8E. Cell swelling strongly enhanced LRRC8‐dependent cisplatin uptake, bolstering the notion that cisplatin enters cells through VRAC. LRRC8A disruption also suppressed drug‐induced apoptosis independently from drug uptake, possibly by impairing VRAC‐dependent apoptotic cell volume decrease. Hence, by mediating cisplatin uptake and facilitating apoptosis, VRAC plays a dual role in the cellular drug response. Incorporation of the LRRC8D subunit into VRAC substantially increased its permeability for cisplatin and the cellular osmolyte taurine, indicating that LRRC8 proteins form the channel pore. Our work suggests that LRRC8D‐containing VRACs are crucial for cell volume regulation by an important organic osmolyte and may influence cisplatin/carboplatin responsiveness of tumors.     

Cisplatin activates volume sensitive LRRC8 channel mediated currents in Xenopus oocytes

LRRC8 proteins have been shown to underlie the ubiquitous volume regulated anion channel (VRAC). VRAC channels are composed of the LRRC8A subunit and at least one among the LRRC8B-E subunits. In addition to their role in volume regulation, LRRC8 proteins have been implicated in the uptake of chemotherapeutic agents. We had found that LRRC8 channels can be conveniently expressed in Xenopus oocytes, a system without endogenous VRAC activity. The fusion with fluorescent proteins yielded constitutive activity for A/C, A/D and A/E heteromers. Here we tested the effect of the anticancer drug cisplatin on LRRC8A-VFP/8E-mCherry and LRRC8A-VFP/8D-mCherry co-expressing oocytes. Incubation with cisplatin dramatically activated currents for both subunit combinations, confirming that VRAC channels provide an uptake pathway for cisplatin and that intracellular cisplatin accumulation strongly activates the channels. Thus, specific activators of LRRC8 proteins might be useful tools to counteract chemotherapeutic drug resistance.     

VRACs swallow platinum drugs

Platinum‐based drugs such as cisplatin and carboplatin are on the WHO model list of essential medicines, as highly effective chemotherapeutic drugs for the treatment of various solid tumors. These drugs react with purine residues in DNA, thereby causing DNA damage, inhibition of cell division, and eventually cell death. However, the mechanisms whereby platinum‐based drugs enter cancer cells remained poorly understood. In this issue, Planells‐Cases et al ( 2015 ) provide evidence that cells take up cisplatin and carboplatin via volume‐regulated anion channels (VRACs), more specifically VRACs composed of LRRC8A and LRRC8D subunits.     

LRRC8A is essential for volume‐regulated anion channel in smooth muscle cells contributing to cerebrovascular remodeling during hypertension

ObjectivesRecent studies revealed LRRC8A to be an essential component of volume‐regulated anion channel (VRAC), which regulates cellular volume homeostasis. However, evidence for the contribution of LRRC8A‐dependent VRAC activity in vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) is still lacking, and the relevant functional role of LRRC8A in VSMCs remains unknown. The primary goal of this study was to elucidate the role of LRRC8A in VRAC activity in VSMCs and the functional role of LRRC8A in cerebrovascular remodeling during hypertension.Materials and MethodssiRNA‐mediated knockdown and adenovirus‐mediated overexpression of LRRC8A were used to elucidate the electrophysiological properties of LRRC8A in basilar smooth muscle cells (BASMCs). A smooth muscle–specific overexpressing transgenic mouse model was used to investigate the functional role of LRRC8A in cerebrovascular remodeling.ResultsLRRC8A is essential for volume‐regulated chloride current (I _Cl, Vol) in BASMCs. Overexpression of LRRC8A induced a voltage‐dependent Cl⁻ current independently of hypotonic stimulation. LRRC8A regulated BASMCs proliferation through activation of WNK1/PI3K‐p85/AKT axis. Smooth muscle‐specific upregulation of LRRC8A aggravated Angiotensin II‐induced cerebrovascular remodeling in mice.ConclusionsLRRC8A is an essential component of VRAC and is required for cell volume homeostasis during osmotic challenge in BASMCs. Smooth muscle specific overexpression of LRRC8A increases BASMCs proliferation and substantially aggravates basilar artery remodeling, revealing a potential therapeutic target for vascular remodeling in hypertension.

The schematic diagram for LRRC8A role in cerebrovascular remodeling. LRRC8A is an essential component of VRAC in BASMCs. During the challenge of hypertension, the activated LRRC8A channel‐mediated‐Cl⁻ efflux increases WNK1 phosphorylation, which in turn triggers AKT phosphorylation and promotes BASMCs proliferation, eventually exacerbates hypertension‐induced cerebrovascular vascular remodeling.     

Rescue of volume-regulated anion current by bestrophin mutants with altered charge selectivity

Mutations in human bestrophin-1 are linked to various kinds of retinal degeneration. Although it has been proposed that bestrophins are Ca(2+)-activated Cl(-) channels, definitive proof is lacking partly because mice with the bestrophin-1 gene deleted have normal Ca(2+)-activated Cl(-) currents. Here, we provide compelling evidence to support the idea that bestrophin-1 is the pore-forming subunit of a cell volume-regulated anion channel (VRAC) in Drosophila S2 cells. VRAC was abolished by treatment with RNAi to Drosophila bestrophin-1. VRAC was rescued by overexpressing bestrophin-1 mutants with altered biophysical properties and responsiveness to sulfhydryl reagents. In particular, the ionic selectivity of the F81C mutant changed from anionic to cationic when the channel was treated with the sulfhydryl reagent, sodium (2-sulfonatoethyl) methanethiosulfonate (MTSES(-)) (P(Cs)/P(Cl) = 0.25 for native and 2.38 for F81C). The F81E mutant was 1.3 times more permeable to Cs(+) than Cl(-). The finding that VRAC was rescued by F81C and F81E mutants with different biophysical properties shows that bestrophin-1 is a VRAC in S2 cells and not simply a regulator or an auxiliary subunit. F81C overexpressed in HEK293 cells also exhibits a shift of ionic selectivity after MTSES(-) treatment, although the effect is quantitatively smaller than in S2 cells. To test whether bestrophins are VRACs in mammalian cells, we compared VRACs in peritoneal macrophages from wild-type mice and mice with both bestrophin-1 and bestrophin-2 disrupted (best1(-/-)/best2(-/-)). VRACs were identical in wild-type and best1(-/-)/best2(-/-) mice, showing that bestrophins are unlikely to be the classical VRAC in mammalian cells.     

Crosstalk between Na+,K+-ATPase and a volume-regulated anion channel in membrane microdomains of human cancer cells

Low concentrations of cardiac glycosides including ouabain, digoxin, and digitoxin block cancer cell growth without affecting Na⁺,K⁺-ATPase activity, but the mechanism underlying this anti-cancer effect is not fully understood. Volume-regulated anion channel (VRAC) plays an important role in cell death signaling pathway in addition to its fundamental role in the cell volume maintenance. Here, we report cardiac glycosides-induced signaling pathway mediated by the crosstalk between Na⁺,K⁺-ATPase and VRAC in human cancer cells. Submicromolar concentrations of ouabain enhanced VRAC currents concomitantly with a deceleration of cancer cell proliferation. The effects of ouabain were abrogated by a specific inhibitor of VRAC (DCPIB) and knockdown of an essential component of VRAC (LRRC8A), and they were also attenuated by the disruption of membrane microdomains or the inhibition of NADPH oxidase. Digoxin and digitoxin also showed anti-proliferative effects in cancer cells at their therapeutic concentration ranges, and these effects were blocked by DCPIB. In membrane microdomains of cancer cells, LRRC8A was found to be co-immunoprecipitated with Na⁺,K⁺-ATPase α1-isoform. These ouabain-induced effects were not observed in non-cancer cells. Therefore, cardiac glycosides were considered to interact with Na⁺,K⁺-ATPase to stimulate the production of reactive oxygen species, and they also apparently activated VRAC within membrane microdomains, thus producing anti-proliferative effects.     

ATP regulates anion channel-mediated organic osmolyte release from cultured rat astrocytes via multiple Ca2+-sensitive mechanisms

Ubiquitously expressed volume-regulated anion channels (VRACs) are activated in response to cell swelling but may also show limited activity in nonswollen cells. VRACs are permeable to inorganic anions and small organic osmolytes, including the amino acids aspartate, glutamate, and taurine. Several recent reports have demonstrated that neurotransmitters or hormones, such as ATP and vasopressin, induce or strongly potentiate astrocytic whole cell Cl^– currents and amino acid release, which are inhibited by VRAC blockers. In the present study, we explored the intracellular signaling mechanisms mediating the effects of ATP on D-[³H]aspartate release via the putative VRAC pathway in rat primary astrocyte cultures. Cells were exposed to moderate (5%) or substantial (30%) reductions in medium osmolarity. ATP strongly potentiated D-[³H]aspartate release in both moderately swollen and substantially swollen cells. These ATP effects were blocked (80% inhibition) by intracellular Ca²⁺ chelation with BAPTA-AM, calmodulin inhibitors, or a combination of the inhibitors of protein kinase C (PKC) and calmodulin-dependent kinase II (CaMK II). In contrast, control D-[³H]aspartate release activated by the substantial hyposmotic swelling showed little (25% inhibition) sensitivity to the same pharmacological agents. These data indicate that ATP regulates VRAC activity via two separate Ca²⁺-sensitive signaling cascades involving PKC and CaMK II and that cell swelling per se activates VRACs via a separate Ca²⁺/calmodulin-independent signaling mechanism. Ca²⁺-dependent organic osmolyte release via VRACs may contribute to the physiological functions of these channels in the brain, including astrocyte-to-neuron intercellular communication. volume-regulated anion channels; protein kinase C; calcium/calmodulin-dependent kinase II; glutamate release; neuron-glia communication     

Role of volume-regulated and calcium-activated anion channels in cell volume homeostasis,cancer and drug resistance

Volume-regulated channels for anions (VRAC) / organic osmolytes (VSOAC) play essential roles in cell volume regulation and other cellular functions, e.g. proliferation, cell migration and apoptosis. LRRC8A, which belongs to the leucine rich-repeat containing protein family, was recently shown to be an essential component of both VRAC and VSOAC. Reduced VRAC and VSOAC activities are seen in drug resistant cancer cells. ANO1 is a calcium-activated chloride channel expressed on the plasma membrane of e.g., secretory epithelia. ANO1 is amplified and highly expressed in a large number of carcinomas. The gene, encoding for ANO1, maps to a region on chromosome 11 (11q13) that is frequently amplified in cancer cells. Knockdown of ANO1 impairs cell proliferation and cell migration in several cancer cells. Below we summarize the basic biophysical properties of VRAC, VSOAC and ANO1 and their most important cellular functions as well as their role in cancer and drug resistance.     

Specific and essential but not sufficient roles of LRRC8A in the activity of volume-sensitive outwardly rectifying anion channel (VSOR)

The broadly expressed volume-sensitive outwardly rectifying anion channel (VSOR, also called VRAC) plays essential roles in cell survival and death. Recent findings have suggested that LRRC8A is a core component of VSOR in human cells. In the present study, VSOR currents were found to be largely reduced by siRNA against LRRC8A in mouse C127 cells as well. In contrast, LRRC8A knockdown never affected activities of 4 other types of anion channel activated by acid, Ca²⁺, patch excision or cAMP. While cisplatin-resistant KCP-4 cells poorly expressed endogenous VSOR activity, molecular expression levels of LRRC8A, LRRC8D and LRRC8E were indistinguishable between VSOR-deficient KCP-4 cells and the parental VSOR-rich KB cells. Furthermore, overexpression of LRRC8A alone or together with LRRC8D or LRRC8E in KCP-4 cells failed to restore VSOR activity. These results show that deficiency of VSOR currents in KCP-4 cells is not due to insufficient expression of the LRRC8A/D/E gene, suggesting an essential involvement of some other factor(s), and indicate that further study is required to better understand the complexities of the molecular determinants of VSOR, including the precise role of LRRC8 proteins.     

Inhibition of Release of Taurine and Excitatory Amino Acids in Ischemia and Neuroprotection

Volume regulated anion channels (VRAC) have been extensively studied in purified single cell systems like cell cultures where they can be activated by cell swelling. This provides a convenient way of analyzing mechanisms and will likely lead to the holy grails of the field, namely the nature or natures of the volume sensor and the nature or natures of VRACs. Important reasons for such an understanding are that these channels are ubiquitous and have important physiological functions which under pathological conditions convert to deleterious effects. Here we summarize data showing the involvement of VRACs in ischemia-induced release of excitatory amino acids (EAAs) in a rat model of global ischemia. Using microdialysis studies we found that reversal of the astrocytic glutamate transporter and VRACs contribute about equally to the large initial release of EAAs and together account for around 80% of the total release. We used the very potent VRAC blocker, tamoxifen, to see if such inhibition of EAA release via VRACs led to significant neuroprotection. Treatment in the focal rat MCA occlusion model led to around 80% reduction in infarct size with an effective post initiation of ischemia therapeutic window of three hours. However, the common problem of other effects for even the most potent inhibitors pertains here, as tamoxifen has other, potentially neuroprotective, effects. Thus it inhibits nitrotyrosine formation, likely due to its inhibition of nNOS and reduction of peroxynitrite formation. Although tamoxifen cannot therefore be used as a test of the "VRAC-excitotxicity" hypothesis it may prove successful for translation of basic stroke research to the clinic because of its multiple targets.     

2-APB inhibits volume-regulated anion channels independently from intracellular calcium signaling modulation

It has previously been suggested that volume-regulated anion channels (VRACs) and store-operated channels (SOCs) interact with each other according to their expected colocalization in the plasma membrane of LNCaP cells. In order to study interactions between these two channels, we used 2-aminoethoxydiphenyl borate (2-APB) as a regular SOC inhibitor. Surprisingly 2-APB reduced VRAC activity in a dose-dependent manner (IC(50)=122.8 microM), but not 2,2-diphenyltetrahydrofuran (a structural analog of 2-APB). This effect was also present in keratinocytes. We conclude that 2-APB is an inhibitor of the VRAC family, and is also a potent tool to study the SOC-VRAC interaction in LNCaP cells.     

Deficient of LRRC8A attenuates hypoxia-induced necrosis in 3T3-L1 cells

ABSTRACT

Under acute hypoxia, multiple ion channels on the cell membrane are activated, causing cell swelling and eventually necrosis. LRRC8A is an indispensable protein of the volume-regulated anion channel (VRAC), which participates in swelling and the acceleration of cell necrosis. In this study, we revealed a dynamic change in the expression level of the LRRC8 family during hypoxia in 3T3-L1 cells. The disruption of LRRC8A in 3T3-L1 cells was also associated with a significant anti-necrotic phenotype upon hypoxia accompanied by the reduced expression of necrosis-related genes. In vivo, differential expression of LRRC8 family members was also identified between high-altitude pigs and their low-altitude relatives. Taken these findings together, this study demonstrates the involvement of LRRC8A in hypoxia-induced cell necrosis.     

Is the Volume-Regulated Anion Channel VRAC a “Water-Permeable” Channel?

The volume-regulated anion channel, VRAC, plays an important role in cell volume regulation. This channel is permeable for a wide variety of anions, amino acids, and organic osmolytes, including taurine. However, nothing is known about possible water permeability of this channel. Water permeability of endothelial cells is estimated from the initial rate of cell swelling because of a hypotonic challenge. As a result of simultaneous volume and current measurements, it will be shown that water permeability is decreased by inhibition of VRAC. It is concluded that water permeates VRAC and might be able to accelerate water transport by providing an additional permeation pathway for water. Therefore VRAC can be considered as a water-permeable, "wet" channel.     

Cellular function and control of volume-regulated anion channels

Restoration of cell volume after cell swelling in mammalian cells is achieved by the loss of solutes (K⁺, Cl⁻, and organic osmolytes) and the subsequent osmotically driven efflux of water. This process is generally known as regulatory volume decrease (RVD). One pathway for the swelling induced loss of Cl⁻ (and also organic osmolytes) during RVD is the volume-regulated anion channel (VRAC). In this review, we discuss the physiological role and cellular control of VRAC. We will first highlight evidence that VRAC is more than a volume regulator and that it participates in other fundamental cellular processes such as cell proliferation and apoptosis. The second part concentrates on the Rho/Rho kinase/myosin phosphorylation cascade and on compartmentalization in caveolae as modulators of the signal transduction cascade that controls VRAC gating in vascular endothelial cells.     

Two conventional protein kinase C isoforms, alpha and beta I, are involved in the ATP-induced activation of volume-regulated anion channel and glutamate release in cultured astrocytes

Volume-regulated anion channels (VRACs) are activated by cell swelling and are permeable to inorganic and small organic anions, including the excitatory amino acids glutamate and aspartate. In astrocytes, ATP potently enhances VRAC activity and glutamate release via a P2Y receptor-dependent mechanism. Our previous pharmacological study identified protein kinase C (PKC) as a major signaling enzyme in VRAC regulation by ATP. However, conflicting results obtained with potent PKC blockers prompted us to re-evaluate the involvement of PKC in regulation of astrocytic VRACs by using small interfering RNA (siRNA) and pharmacological inhibitors that selectively target individual PKC isoforms. In primary rat astrocyte cultures, application of hypoosmotic medium (30% reduction in osmolarity) and 20 μM ATP synergistically increased the release of excitatory amino acids, measured with a non-metabolized analog of l -glutamate, d -[³H]aspartate. Both Go6976, the selective inhibitor of Ca²⁺-sensitive PKCα, βI/II, and γ, and MP-20-28, a cell permeable pseudosubstrate inhibitory peptide of PKCα and βI/II, reduced the effects of ATP on d -[³H]aspartate release by ∼45–55%. Similar results were obtained with a mixture of siRNAs targeting rat PKCα and βI. Surprisingly, down-regulation of individual α and βI PKC isozymes by siRNA was completely ineffective. These data suggest that ATP regulates VRAC activity and volume-sensitive excitatory amino acid release via cooperative activation of PKCα and βI.     

Peroxynitrite enhances astrocytic volume-sensitive excitatory amino acid release via a src tyrosine kinase-dependent mechanism

Volume-regulated anion channels (VRACs) are critically important for cell volume homeostasis, and under pathological conditions contribute to neuronal damage via excitatory amino (EAA) release. The precise mechanisms by which brain VRACs are activated and/or modulated remain elusive. In the present work we explored the possible involvement of nitric oxide (NO) and NO-related reactive species in the regulation of VRAC activity and EAA release, using primary astrocyte cultures. The NO donors sodium nitroprusside and spermine NONOate did not affect volume-activated d-[3H]aspartate release. In contrast, the peroxynitrite (ONOO-) donor 3-morpholinosydnomine hydrochloride (SIN-1) increased volume-dependent EAA release by approx. 80-110% under identical conditions. Inhibition of ONOO- formation with superoxide dismutase completely abolished the effects of SIN-1. Both the volume- and SIN-1-induced EAA release were sensitive to the VRAC blockers NPPB and ATP. Further pharmacological analysis ruled out the involvement of cGMP-dependent reactions and modification of sulfhydryl groups in the SIN-1-inducedmodulation of EAA release. The src family tyrosine kinase inhibitor 4-amino-5-(4-chlorophenyl)-7-(t-butyl)pyrazolo [3,4-d]pyrimidine (PP2), but not its inactive analog PP3, abolished the effects of SIN-1. A broader spectrum tyrosine kinase inhibitor tyrphostin A51, also completely eliminated the SIN-1-induced EAA release. Our data suggest that ONOO- up-regulates VRAC activity via a src tyrosine kinase-dependent mechanism. This modulation may contribute to EAA-mediated neuronal damage in ischemia and other pathological conditions favoring cell swelling and ONOO- production.     

RhoA exerts a permissive effect on volume-regulated anion channels in vascular endothelial cells

Cell swelling triggers in most cell typesan outwardly rectifying anion current,I_Cl,swell, via volume-regulated anion channels (VRACs). We have previously demonstrated in calf pulmonary artery endothelial (CPAE) cells that inhibition of the Rho/Rho kinase/myosin light chain phosphorylation pathway reduces the swelling-dependent activation of I_Cl,swell. However, theseexperiments did not allow us to discriminate between a direct activatorrole or a permissive effect. We now show that the Rho pathway did notaffect VRAC activity if this pathway was activated by transfecting CPAEcells with constitutively active isoforms of G (a Rho activatingheterotrimeric G protein subunit), Rho, or Rho kinase. Furthermore,biochemical and morphological analysis failed to demonstrate activationof the Rho pathway during hypotonic cell swelling. Finally,manipulating the Rho pathway with either guanosine5'-O-(3-thiotriphosphate) or C3 exoenzyme had no effect onVRACs in caveolin-1-expressing Caco-2 cells. We conclude that the Rhopathway exerts a permissive effect on VRACs in CPAE cells, i.e.,swelling-induced opening of VRACs requires a functional Rho pathway,but not an activation of the Rho pathway.

     

The Protein Synthesis Inhibitor Blasticidin S Enters Mammalian Cells via Leucine-rich Repeat-containing Protein 8D

Leucine-rich repeat-containing 8 (LRRC8) proteins have been identified as putative receptors involved in lymphocyte development and adipocyte differentiation. They remain poorly characterized, and no specific function has been assigned to them. There is no consensus on how this family of proteins might function because homology searches suggest that members of the LRRC8 family act not as plasma membrane receptors, but rather as channels that mediate cell-cell signaling. Here we provide experimental evidence that supports a role for LRRC8s in the transport of small molecules. We show that LRRC8D is a mammalian protein required for the import of the antibiotic blasticidin S. We characterize localization and topology of LRRC8A and LRRC8D and demonstrate that LRRC8D interacts with LRRC8A, LRRC8B, and LRRC8C. Given the suggested involvement in solute transport, our results support a model in which LRRC8s form one or more complexes that may mediate cell-cell communication by transporting small solutes.     

Two distinct modes of hypoosmotic medium-induced release of excitatory amino acids and taurine in the rat brain in vivo

A variety of physiological and pathological factors induce cellular swelling in the brain. Changes in cell volume activate several types of ion channels, which mediate the release of inorganic and organic osmolytes and allow for compensatory cell volume decrease. Volume-regulated anion channels (VRAC) are thought to be responsible for the release of some of organic osmolytes, including the excitatory neurotransmitters glutamate and aspartate. In the present study, we compared the in vivo properties of the swelling-activated release of glutamate, aspartate, and another major brain osmolyte taurine. Cell swelling was induced by perfusion of hypoosmotic (low [NaCl]) medium via a microdialysis probe placed in the rat cortex. The hypoosmotic medium produced several-fold increases in the extracellular levels of glutamate, aspartate and taurine. However, the release of the excitatory amino acids differed from the release of taurine in several respects including: (i) kinetic properties, (ii) sensitivity to isoosmotic changes in [NaCl], and (iii) sensitivity to hydrogen peroxide, which is known to modulate VRAC. Consistent with the involvement of VRAC, hypoosmotic medium-induced release of the excitatory amino acids was inhibited by the anion channel blocker DNDS, but not by the glutamate transporter inhibitor TBOA or Cd2+, which inhibits exocytosis. In order to elucidate the mechanisms contributing to taurine release, we studied its release properties in cultured astrocytes and cortical synaptosomes. Similarities between the results obtained in vivo and in synaptosomes suggest that the swelling-activated release of taurine in vivo may be of neuronal origin. Taken together, our findings indicate that different transport mechanisms and/or distinct cellular sources mediate hypoosmotic medium-induced release of the excitatory amino acids and taurine in vivo.     

Hydrogen peroxide potentiates volume-sensitive excitatory amino acid release via a mechanism involving Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II

Excessive excitatory amino acid (EAA) release in cerebral ischemia is a major mechanism responsible for neuronal damage and death. A substantial fraction of ischemic EAA release occurs via volume-regulated anion channels (VRACs). Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), which is abundantly produced during ischemia and reperfusion, activates a number of protein kinases critical for VRAC functioning and has recently been reported to activate VRACs. In the present study, we explored the effects of H2O2 on volume-dependent EAA release in cultured astrocytes, measured as the release of preloaded D-[3H]aspartate. 100-1,000 microm H2O2 enhanced swelling-induced EAA release by approximately 2.5-3-fold (EC50 approximately 10 microM). The VRAC blockers ATP, phloretin, and 5-nitro-2-(3-phenylpropylamino)-benzoate (NPPB) potently inhibited both control swelling-induced and the H2O2-potentiated release, suggesting a role for VRACs. The H2O2-induced component of EAA release was attenuated by the Ca2+ chelator 1,2-bis(2-aminophenoxy)ethane-N,N,N',N'-tetraacetic acid-acetoxymethyl ester (BAPTA-AM) and completely eliminated by the calmodulin antagonists trifluoperazine and W-7 and the Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II (CaMKII) inhibitor KN-93. Inhibitors of tyrosine kinases, protein kinase C, and the myosin light chain kinase were ineffective in blocking the H2O2 response. H2O2 treatment of swollen astrocytes, but not swelling alone, resulted in CaMKII activation that was inhibited by KN-93, as determined by a phospho-Thr286 CaMKII antibody. These data demonstrate that H2O2 strongly up-regulates astrocytic volume-sensitive EAA release via a CaMKII-dependent mechanism and in this way may potently promote pathological EAA release and brain damage in ischemia.