表达中东呼吸综合征冠状病毒S蛋白的重组痘苗病毒的构建及免疫效果初步评价

目的:以痘苗病毒天坛株为载体,构建表达中东呼吸综合征冠状病毒(MERS-Co V)S蛋白的重组病毒疫苗,并进行免疫效果评价。方法:通过PCR扩增获得去除跨膜区的S蛋白基因片段SQ,并构建重组痘苗病毒载体质粒p JSC11Lac Z7.5SQ,将重组质粒与痘苗病毒同源重组并单斑纯化获得重组病毒毒株RVVMERS-SQ,重组病毒免疫小鼠后用酶联免疫吸附实验(ELISA)和假病毒微量中和实验检测其诱发的S蛋白体液免疫反应水平。结果:构建了表达MERS-Co V去跨膜区S蛋白的重组病毒RVVMERS-SQ,其免疫小鼠后诱发了强的S蛋白体液免疫反应,血清Ig G抗体滴度为1∶3200,中和抗体滴度达到1∶1000。结论:重组痘苗病毒RVVMERS-SQ可在BALB/c小鼠体内诱发强的免疫反应,为MERS-Co V疫苗的研发提供了实验基础。     

中东呼吸综合征疫苗研究进展

中东呼吸综合征(Middle East respiratory syndrome,MERS)是由中东呼吸综合征冠状病毒(MERS Coronavirus,MERS-CoV)引起的一种呼吸系统疾病。目前该病已经蔓延到全球25个国家,造成1400余人感染,近500人死亡,并有4个国家报道骆驼感染MERS病例。研发相关疫苗成为预防该病非常重要的措施。研究人员在病毒载体、重组蛋白、DNAs、纳米粒子、MERS-CoV重组的基础上进行了大量的候选疫苗开发,其中一些还在实验动物身上进行了效果试验。本文就当前一些候选疫苗研究进展进行总结概括,以期更多人力物力投入到研发安全有效的疫苗当中。     

中东呼吸综合征冠状病毒假病毒系统的建立及其在中和抗体检测中的应用

目的:为了避免中东呼吸综合征冠状病毒(MERS-CoV)感染与中和试验中操作活病毒带来的生物安全隐患,构建只具有一次感染能力而无复制能力的MERS假病毒,建立MERS假病毒系统,并应用于中和抗体检测。方法:构建含有MERS-CoV S基因的重组质粒pcDNA3.1-MERS-S,与缺失Env基因、含有萤光素酶报告基因的HIV-1骨架质粒pNL4-3.Luc.RE共转染293T细胞,收获含有假病毒的上清;通过Western印迹、细胞感染实验和血清中和试验,确定是否包装出MERS假病毒,及是否能有效应用于细胞感染与中和试验。结果:MERS假病毒pMERS-S培养上清经Western印迹鉴定出相对分子质量为25×103的HIV-1 P24蛋白和相对分子质量为180×103的MERS-CoV S蛋白;与阴性对照假病毒pEnv-相比,pMERS-S能有效感染MERS-CoV敏感细胞系Huh-7,在感染细胞中产生荧光信号,感染细胞的假病毒量与产生的荧光信号呈明显的量效关系;在MERS假病毒中和试验中,pMERS-S能被MERS-CoV中和抗体中和而失去感染力,反映抗体对MERS-CoV的中和活性。结论:建立了不依赖于BSL-3高等级生物安全条件的MERS假病毒系统,并有效应用于中和抗体检测,为MERS-CoV疫苗、药物评价及病毒致病机制研究提供了良好的技术支撑手段。     

环介导逆转录等温扩增技术检测中东呼吸综合征冠状病毒基因

建立了基于浊度仪和羟基萘酚蓝(Hydroxy naphthol blue,HNB)颜色变化的简单、快速和灵敏的环介导逆转录等温扩增技术(RT-LAMP)检测方法,应用于中东呼吸综合征冠状病毒(Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus,MERS-CoV)的检测。针对MERS-CoV的核衣壳蛋白基因(Nucleocapsid,N)设计6条特异引物,在等温条件下(63℃)进行60min扩增反应。通过实时浊度仪记录扩增曲线和扩增前在反应体系中加入HNB观察颜色变化两种方式进行检测结果判定。本文对不同人类冠状病毒及常见呼吸道病毒进行了特异性验证,对梯度稀释的体外转录MERS-CoV全N基因RNA进行了定量和检测限分析,同时与已发表的实时荧光定量PCR(rRT-PCR)进行比较。结果显示,本研究建立的RT-LAMP方法特异性高,对于每反应管103至106的拷贝数RNA,出峰时间与每反应管N基因RNA拷贝数对数值有稳定的线性关系。基于浊度仪和颜色判定的RT-LAMP检测方法检测限分别为500拷贝和1 000拷贝。因此,该方法有望应用于MERS-CoV感染的快速筛选,具有在基层医疗卫生机构和现场推广和应用的潜力。     

严重急性呼吸综合征、中东呼吸综合征和2019冠状病毒病治疗研究进展

严重急性呼吸综合征2019(sever acute respiratory syndrome,SARS)、中东呼吸综合征(Middle East respiratory syndrome,MERS)和2019冠状病毒病(corona virus disease 2019,COVID-19)对全世界人民造成了严重的经济损...     

中东呼吸综合征冠状病毒S1蛋白在昆虫细胞中的重组表达及免疫效果评价

目的:利用昆虫杆状病毒表达系统重组表达中东呼吸综合征冠状病毒(MERS-Co V)S1蛋白,并对其免疫效果进行评价。方法:构建含有MERS-Co V S1基因的重组杆状病毒质粒,转染Sf9细胞包装杆状病毒;重组病毒传代3次获得种子病毒,感染Sf9细胞,收获感染上清,通过镍离子亲和层析纯化获得S1重组蛋白;用纯化的S1蛋白免疫BALB/c小鼠,采用ELISA检测免疫小鼠血清抗原特异性的抗体水平;采用假病毒中和试验检测血清中抗体的中和活性。结果:获得了表达MERS-Co V S1蛋白的重组病毒株,在昆虫细胞中表达并纯化了S1重组蛋白;利用重组表达的S1蛋白免疫小鼠3次,血清S1特异性Ig G抗体滴度可达1∶102 400,免疫小鼠血清稀释至1/5120后中和百分比仍达50%以上。结论:利用昆虫细胞重组表达的MERS-Co V S1蛋白具有良好的免疫原性,并能有效诱导产生高滴度中和抗体,为发展MERS-Co V重组蛋白疫苗奠定了基础。     

中东呼吸综合征冠状病毒RT-RAA快速检测方法的建立及应用

建立基于重组酶介导的中东呼吸综合征冠状病毒(MERS-CoV)核酸检测方法。本研究设计、合成特异性中东呼吸综合征冠状病毒基因的重组酶介导检测(RAA)引物及探针,制备MERS-CoV假病毒颗粒阳性对照品,通过一系列条件优化建立了MERS-CoV的快速、灵敏、特异的RT-RAA检测方法,分别与荧光定量RT-PCR检测方法做比较,并且采用首例中国MERS-CoV韩国地区输入病例的咽拭子样品、其它类似呼吸道病毒样本以及英国QCMD的MERS-CoV室间质评灭活样本做临床验证。结果显示:建立的RT-RAA方法检测中东呼吸综合征冠状病毒灵敏度为10拷贝,高于本实验室建立的荧光RT-PCR方法灵敏度(100拷贝),且检测时间(4.8～13.6min)大大低于荧光RT-PCR检测时间(90min);用该方法检测中东呼吸综合征冠状假病毒颗粒为阳性,而检测其他8种对照呼吸道病毒均呈阴性;检测临床阳性样本也与实际结果相符。本研究建立的中东呼吸综合征冠状病毒RT-RAA检测方法灵敏、特异、快速,可用于中东呼吸综合征冠状病毒感染的现场快速诊断和流行病学调查。     

高致病性中东呼吸综合征冠状病毒识别细胞受体分子机制的破译

冠状病毒属巢状病毒日（Order：Nidovirales）冠状病毒科（Family：Coronaviridae）冠状病毒属（Genus：Coronavirus）,为一类具囊膜的RNA病毒。     

中东呼吸综合征冠状病毒多重荧光定量RT-PCR检测技术的建立

建立中东呼吸系统综合征冠状病毒(MERS-CoV)感染的筛查与诊断应用的核酸检测方法。本研究建立了基于MERS-CoV三个分子靶标(upE,ORF1b,N2)的双重以及三重的三种荧光定量RT-PCR检测技术方法,分别与前期建立的单重荧光定量RT-PCR(upE或N2)检测方法做了比较,并且采用MERS-CoV病毒毒株、上海提供的口岸发烧病人样本以及由首例中国MERS-CoV韩国地区输入病例的咽拭子样品和全血的样品做了临床验证。结果显示:采用MERS-CoV病毒毒株作为模板,三种新建立的多重检测方法与单重荧光定量RT-PCR检测方法最低检测限均能达到10PFU/mL,且与其他常见呼吸道病毒的阳性样本均无交叉反应,特异性良好。对临床样品的验证中,上海病人咽拭子样本均为阴性,而中国首例MERS输入病例的急性期咽拭子样品均为阳性,而全血样的检测结果显示N2靶标有较高检出率,明显优于基于upE单一靶标。本研究所建立的基于MERS-CoV三个分子靶标(upE,ORF1b,N2)的双重以及三重荧光定量RT-PCR检测技术方法用于MERS-CoV感染的实验室诊断,具有较高灵敏度与特异性及适用性。     

中国首例输入性中东呼吸综合征冠状病毒结构基因与附属基因的序列分析

针对中国首例实验室确诊输入性MERS-CoV感染病例,采用鼻咽拭子样品进行核酸提取、基因扩增与测序,获得MERS-CoV_ChinaGD01结构蛋白与附属蛋白编码基因,包括S基因、E基因、M基因、N基因、ORF3、ORF4a、ORF4b、ORF5和ORF8b基因序列。根据S基因进化分析发现中国输入性病例中MERS-CoV虽有少数位点变异,但仍与近年沙特流行株相近,属于MERS-CoV亚型5,N、E、M等结构基因核苷酸变异较少。附属蛋白进化分析表明:ORF3、ORF4a、ORF4b、ORF5均有一定的核苷酸替换,而ORF8b相对保守。总之,中国首例输入性MERSCoV与已发表序列相比总体表现为保守,但在部分基因序列上有一定的变异。这是中国首例输入性MERS-CoV的第一次基因分析结果报道,可为该MERS-CoV感染特点的进一步研究及相关疾病的防控提供参考。     

Development of a diagnostic system for detection of specific antibodies and antigens against Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus

Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS‐CoV) is a single‐stranded RNA virus that causes severe respiratory disease in humans with a high fatality rate. Binding of the receptor binding domain (RBD) of the spike (S) glycoprotein to dipeptidyl peptidase 4 is the critical step in MERS‐CoV infection of a host cell. No vaccines or clinically applicable treatments are currently available for MERS‐CoV. Therefore, rapid diagnosis is important for improving patient outcomes through prompt treatment and protection against viral outbreaks. In this study, the aim was to establish two ELISA systems for detecting antigens and antibodies against MERS‐CoV. Using a recombinant full‐length S protein, an indirect ELISA was developed and found to detect MERS‐CoV‐specific antibodies in animal sera and sera of patient with MERS. Moreover, MAbs were induced with the recombinant S protein and RBD and used for sandwich ELISA to detect the MERS‐CoV S protein. Neither ELISA system exhibited significant intra‐assay or inter‐assay variation, indicating good reproducibility. Moreover, the inter‐day precision and sensitivity were adequate for use as a diagnostic kit. Thus, these ELISAs can be used clinically to diagnose MERS‐CoV.

     

2019新型冠状病毒及其诊疗与防控:回顾与展望

2019新型冠状病毒的暴发持续至今,导致了世界各地数以百万计的感染个例,更夺去了数十万人的生命。世界卫生组织在2020年2月将此病毒引起的疾病定名为2019冠状病毒病(Coronavirus disease 2019,COVID-19),而国际病毒分类委员会也将此病毒命名为SARS-Co V-2。COVID-19的典型临床症状类似感冒,少数病人可发展为重症甚至死亡。21世纪以来,人类冠状病毒有3次大暴发,分别是2003年暴发的严重急性呼吸综合征(SARS)、2012年暴发的中东呼吸综合征(MERS)和本次的新型肺炎。自2003年以来,对SARS和MERS冠状病毒的研究从未间断,对其自然起源、致病机理、药物筛选及疫苗研发等已取得一定进展。鉴于SARS-Co V-2和SARS-Co V的基因组序列高度相似,以往对SARS-Co V的研究对深入探讨SARS-Co V-2生物学特性、诊断、治疗和防控有很强的借鉴性。文中通过回顾过往的研究进展,对比SARS-Co V和SARS-Co V-2的生物学特性,分析当前亟需的防控和诊疗措施,探讨疫苗研发所面对的一些难题,并展望疫情发展趋势及对本领域研究与开发的主要挑战,冀为我国和全世界有效控制COVID-19疫情提供参考。     

Identification and design of novel small molecule inhibitors against MERS-CoV papain-like protease via high-throughput screening and molecular modeling

The development of new therapeutic agents against the coronavirus causing Middle East Respiratory Syndrome (MERS) is a continuing imperative. The initial MERS-CoV epidemic was contained entirely through public health measures, but episodic cases continue, as there are currently no therapeutic agents effective in the treatment of MERS-CoV, although multiple strategies have been proposed. In this study, we screened 30,000 compounds from three different compound libraries against one of the essential proteases, the papain-like protease (PL^pro), using a fluorescence-based enzymatic assay followed by surface plasmon resonance (SPR) direct binding analysis for hit confirmation. Mode of inhibition assays and competition SPR studies revealed two compounds to be competitive inhibitors. To improve upon the inhibitory activity of the best hit compounds, a small fragment library consisting of 352 fragments was screened in the presence of each hit compound, resulting in one fragment that enhanced the IC₅₀ value of the best hit compound by 3-fold. Molecular docking and MM/PBSA binding energy calculations were used to predict potential binding sites, providing insight for design and synthesis of next-generation compounds.     

Effect of clinical isolate or cleavage site mutations in the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein on protein stability,cleavage, and cell–cell fusion

The trimeric severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) spike protein (S) is the sole viral protein responsible for both viral binding to a host cell and the membrane fusion event needed for cell entry. In addition to facilitating fusion needed for viral entry, S can also drive cell–cell fusion, a pathogenic effect observed in the lungs of SARS-CoV-2–infected patients. While several studies have investigated S requirements involved in viral particle entry, examination of S stability and factors involved in S cell–cell fusion remain limited. A furin cleavage site at the border between the S1 and S2 subunits (S1/S2) has been identified, along with putative cathepsin L and transmembrane serine protease 2 cleavage sites within S2. We demonstrate that S must be processed at the S1/S2 border in order to mediate cell–cell fusion and that mutations at potential cleavage sites within the S2 subunit alter S processing at the S1/S2 border, thus preventing cell–cell fusion. We also identify residues within the internal fusion peptide and the cytoplasmic tail that modulate S-mediated cell–cell fusion. In addition, we examined S stability and protein cleavage kinetics in a variety of mammalian cell lines, including a bat cell line related to the likely reservoir species for SARS-CoV-2, and provide evidence that proteolytic processing alters the stability of the S trimer. This work therefore offers insight into S stability, proteolytic processing, and factors that mediate S cell–cell fusion, all of which help give a more comprehensive understanding of this high-profile therapeutic target.     

Analytical biotechnology of recombinant peptides and proteins: II. A confirmation of the primary structure of fusion protein containing human proinsulin and optimization of its proteolysis by trypsin

The kinetics of trypsin proteolysis of the fusion protein (FP) containing human proinsulin was studied by a set of analytical micromethods. These were the microcolumn reversed-phase HPLC and the qualitative identification by MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry and amino acid sequencing. The first stage of the proteolysis was shown to be the cleavage of FP into the leader fragment and proinsulin. The subsequent splitting off ofC-peptide from proinsulin results in the formation of Arg^B31-Arg^B32-insulin. The effect of temperature on the formation of de-Thr^B30-insulin, a by-product, was also studied. The structure of FP was confirmed by the peptide mapping technique, and the leader fragment was shown to contain noN-terminal Met residue. For communication I, see [1].     

How to lose a kink and gain a helix: pH independent conformational changes of the fusion domains from influenza hemagglutinin in heterogeneous lipid bilayers

We have simulated two conformations of the fusion domain of influenza hemagglutinin (HA) within explicit water, salt, and heterogeneous lipid bilayers composed of POPC:POPG (4:1). Each conformation has seven different starting points in which the initial peptide structure is the same for each conformation, but the location across the membrane normal and lipid arrangement around the peptide are varied, giving a combined total simulation time of 140 ns. For the HA5 conformation (primary structure from recent NMR spectroscopy at pH = 5), the peptide exhibits a stable and less kinked structure in the lipid bilayer compared to that from the NMR studies. The relative fusogenic behavior of the different conformations has been investigated by calculation of the relative free energy of insertion into the hydrophobic region of lipid bilayer as a function of the depth of immersion. For the HA7 conformations (primary structure from recent NMR spectroscopy at pH = 7.4), while the N-terminal helix preserves its initial structure, the flexible C-terminal chain produces a transient helical motif inside the lipid bilayer. This conformational change is pH-independent, and is closely related to the peptide insertion into the lipid bilayer.     

Identification of phytochemicals as potential therapeutic agents that binds to Nsp15 protein target of coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) that are capable of inhibiting virus replication

BackgroundCoronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) playing havoc across the globe caused 585,727 deaths and 13,616,593 confirmed cases so far as per World Health Organization data released till 17th July 2020. Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV- 2) is responsible for causing this pandemic across different continents. It is not only impacting the world economy but also quarantined millions of people in their homes or hospitals.PurposeAt present, there is no Food and Drug Administration-approved drug or vaccine available to treat this disease. Still, people are trying various pre-existing medicines that are known to have anti-viral or anti-parasitic effects. In view of this, the present study aimed to study the binding potential of various phytochemicals present in multiple natural plant extract as a secondary metabolite to non-structural protein 15 (Nsp15) protein, a drug target known to play a crucial role in virulence of coronavirus.MethodNsp15 protein was selected because it shows 89% similarity to the other SARS-CoV, which caused the earlier outbreak. The assumption is that inhibition of Nsp15 slowdowns the viral replication. Phytochemicals are selected as these are present in various plant parts (seed, flower, roots, etc.), which are used in different food cuisines in different geographical regions across the globe. The molecular docking approach was performed using two different software, i.e., Autodock, and Swissdock, to study the interaction of various phytochemicals with Nsp15 protein. Hydroxychloroquine is used as a positive control as it is used by medical professionals showing some positive effects in dealing with coronavirus.ResultsThe present study demonstrated the binding potential of approximately 50 phytochemicals with Nsp15 and capable of inhibiting the viral replication, although in vitro and in vivo tests are required to confirm these findings.ConclusionsIn conclusion, the present study successfully demonstrated the binding of phytochemicals such as sarsasapogenin, ursonic acid, curcumin, ajmalicine, novobiocin, silymarin and aranotin, piperine, gingerol, rosmarinic acid, and alpha terpinyl acetate to Nsp15 viral protein and they might play a key role in inhibiting SARS-CoV-2 replication.     

Pseudomonas aeruginosa toxin ExoU induces a PAF-dependent impairment of alveolar fibrin turnover secondary to enhanced activation of coagulation and increased expression of plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 in the course of mice pneumosepsis

Background

ExoU, a Pseudomonas aeruginosa cytotoxin with phospholipase A₂ activity, was shown to induce vascular hyperpermeability and thrombus formation in a murine model of pneumosepsis. In this study, we investigated the toxin ability to induce alterations in pulmonary fibrinolysis and the contribution of the platelet activating factor (PAF) in the ExoU-induced overexpression of plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 (PAI-1).

Methods

Mice were intratracheally instilled with the ExoU producing PA103 P. aeruginosa or its mutant with deletion of the exoU gene. After 24 h, animal bronchoalveolar lavage fluids (BALF) were analyzed and lung sections were submitted to fibrin and PAI-1 immunohistochemical localization. Supernatants from A549 airway epithelial cells and THP-1 macrophage cultures infected with both bacterial strains were also analyzed at 24 h post-infection.

Results

In PA103-infected mice, but not in control animals or in mice infected with the bacterial mutant, extensive fibrin deposition was detected in lung parenchyma and microvasculature whereas mice BALF exhibited elevated tissue factor-dependent procoagulant activity and PAI-1 concentration. ExoU-triggered PAI-1 overexpression was confirmed by immunohistochemistry. In in vitro assays, PA103-infected A549 cells exhibited overexpression of PAI-1 mRNA. Increased concentration of PAI-1 protein was detected in both A549 and THP-1 culture supernatants. Mice treatment with a PAF antagonist prior to PA103 infection reduced significantly PAI-1 concentrations in mice BALF. Similarly, A549 cell treatment with an antibody against PAF receptor significantly reduced PAI-1 mRNA expression and PAI-1 concentrations in cell supernatants, respectively.

Conclusion

ExoU was shown to induce disturbed fibrin turnover, secondary to enhanced procoagulant and antifibrinolytic activity during P. aeruginosa pneumosepsis, by a PAF-dependent mechanism. Besides its possible pathophysiological relevance, in vitro detection of exoU gene in bacterial clinical isolates warrants investigation as a predictor of outcome of patients with P. aeruginosa pneumonia/sepsis and as a marker to guide treatment strategies.     

Structural and functional properties of peptides based on the N-terminus of HIV-1 gp41 and the C-terminus of the amyloid-beta protein

Given their high alanine and glycine levels, plaque formation, α-helix to β-sheet interconversion and fusogenicity, FP (i.e., the N-terminal fusion peptide of HIV-1 gp41; 23 residues) and amyloids were proposed as belonging to the same protein superfamily. Here, we further test whether FP may exhibit ‘amyloid-like’ characteristics, by contrasting its structural and functional properties with those of Aβ(26-42), a 17-residue peptide from the C-terminus of the amyloid-beta protein responsible for Alzheimer's. FTIR spectroscopy, electron microscopy, light scattering and predicted amyloid structure aggregation (PASTA) indicated that aqueous FP and Aβ(26-42) formed similar networked β-sheet fibrils, although the FP fibril interactions were weaker. FP and Aβ(26-42) both lysed and aggregated human erythrocytes, with the hemolysis-onsets correlated with the conversion of α-helix to β-sheet for each peptide in liposomes. Congo red (CR), a marker of amyloid plaques in situ, similarly inhibited either FP- or Aβ(26-42)-induced hemolysis, and surface plasmon resonance indicated that this may be due to direct CR-peptide binding. These findings suggest that membrane-bound β-sheets of FP may contribute to the cytopathicity of HIV in vivo through an amyloid-type mechanism, and support the classification of HIV-1 FP as an ‘amyloid homolog’ (or ‘amylog’).     

Quantitative comparison of the efficiency of antibodies against S1 and S2 subunit of SARS coronavirus spike protein in virus neutralization and blocking of receptor binding: implications for the functional roles of S2 subunit

Neutralizing effects of antibodies targeting the C-terminal stalk (S2) subunit of the spike protein of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus have previously been reported, although its mechanism remained elusive. In this study, high titered mouse antisera against the N-terminal globular (S1) and S2 subunits of the S protein were generated and total immunoglobulin G (IgG) was purified from these antisera. The efficiency of these purified IgGs in virus neutralization and blocking of receptor binding were compared quantitatively using virus neutralization assay and a previously developed cell-based receptor binding assay, respectively. We demonstrated that anti-S1 IgG neutralizes the virus and binds to the membrane associated S protein more efficiently than anti-S2 IgG does. Moreover, both anti-S1 and anti-S2 IgGs were able to abolish the binding between S protein and its cellular receptor(s), although anti-S1 IgG showed a significantly higher blocking efficiency. The unexpected blocking ability of anti-S2 IgG towards the receptor binding implied a possible role of the S2 subunit in virus docking process and argues against the current hypothesis of viral entry. On the other hand, the functional roles of the previously reported neutralizing epitopes within S2 subunit were investigated using an antigen specific antibody depletion assay. Depletion of antibodies against these regions significantly diminished, though not completely abolished, the neutralizing effects of anti-S2 IgG. It suggests the absence of a major neutralizing domain on S2 protein. The possible ways of anti-S2 IgGs to abolish the receptor binding and the factors restricting anti-S2 IgGs to neutralize the virus are discussed.