Fermentative production of poly-β-hydroxybutyric acid from xylose by a two-stage culture method employing Lactococcus lactis IO-1 and Alcaligenes eutrophus

Summary A two-stage culture method employing Lactococcus.lactis IO-1 and Alcaligenes eutrophus was developed for production of poly--hydroxybutyric acid (PHB) from xylose. In this method, xylose was converted to L-lactic acid and acetic acid by L.lactis IO-1, and then the organic acids were converted to PHB by A.eutrophus. When the supernatant of the IO-1 culture broth, containing 10 g·dm^-3 L-lactate derived from xylose, was used as medium for A. eutrophus, the concentration of cells increased to 8.5 g·dm^-3 in 24 h and 55% of the content in the cells by weight was PHB.     

Improved homo <Emphasis Type="SmallCaps">l</Emphasis>-lactic acid fermentation from xylose by abolishment of the phosphoketolase pathway and enhancement of the pentose phosphate pathway in genetically modified xylose-assimilating <Emphasis Type="Italic">Lactococcus lactis</Emphasis>

In order to achieve efficient homo L-lactic acid fermentation from xylose, we first carried out addition of xylose assimilation ability to Lactococcus lactis IL 1403 by introducing a plasmid carrying the xylRAB genes from L. lactis IO-1 (pXylRAB). Then modification of xylose assimilation pathway was carried out. L. lactis has two pathways for xylose assimilation called the phosphoketolase pathway (PK pathway) that produces both lactic acid and acetic acid and the pentose phosphate pathway (PP pathway) that produces only lactic acid as a final product. Thus a mutant strain that disrupted its phosphokeolase gene (ptk) was constructed. The Δptk mutant harboring pXylRAB lacked the PK pathway and produced predominantly lactic acid from xylose via the PP pathway, although its fermentation rate slightly decreased. Further introduction of the transketolase gene (tkt) to disrupted ptk locus led restoration of fermentation rate and this was attributed to enhancement of the PP pathway. As a result, ptk::tkt strain harboring pXylRAB produced 50.1 g/l of L-lactic acid from xylose with a high optical purity of 99.6% and a high yield of 1.58 (moles per mole xylose consumed) that is close to theoretical value of 1.67 from xylose.     

Restoration of a Defective Lactococcus lactis Xylose Isomerase

The genes (xylA) encoding xylose isomerase (XI) from two Lactococcus lactis subsp. lactis strains, 210 (Xyl⁻) and IO-1 (Xyl⁺), were cloned, and the activities of their expressed proteins in recombinant strains of Escherichia coli were investigated. The nucleotide and amino acid sequence homologies between the xylA genes were 98.4 and 98.6%, respectively, and only six amino acid residues differed between the two XIs. The purified IO-1 XI was soluble with K_m and k_cat being 2.25 mM and 184/s, respectively, while the 210 XI was insoluble and inactive. Site-directed mutagenesis on 210 xylA showed that a triple mutant possessing R202M/Y218D/V275A mutations regained XI activity and was soluble. The K_m and k_cat of this mutant were 4.15 mM and 141/s, respectively. One of the IO-1 XI mutants, S388T, was insoluble and showed negligible activity similar to that of 210 XI. The introduction of a K407E mutation to the IO-1 S388T XI mutant restored its activity and solubility. The dissolution of XI activity in L. lactis subsp. lactis involves a series of mutations that collectively eliminate enzyme activity by reducing the solubility of the enzyme.     

Acid hydrolysis of sugarcane bagasse for lactic acid production

In order to use sugarcane bagasse as a substrate for lactic acid production, optimum conditions for acid hydrolysis of the bagasse were investigated. After lignin extraction, the conditions were varied in terms of hydrochloric (HCl) or sulfuric (H₂SO₄) concentration (0.5–5%, v/v), reaction time (1–5 h) and incubation temperature (90–120 °C). The maximum catalytic efficiency (E) was 10.85 under the conditions of 0.5% of HCl at 100 °C for 5 h, which the main components (in g l⁻¹) in the hydrolysate were glucose, 1.50; xylose, 22.59; arabinose, 1.29; acetic acid, 0.15 and furfural, 1.19. To increase yield of lactic acid production from the hydrolysate by Lactococcus lactis IO-1, the hydrolysate was detoxified through amberlite and supplemented with 7 g l⁻¹ of xylose and 7 g l⁻¹ of yeast extract. The main products (in g l⁻¹) of the fermentation were lactic acid, 10.85; acetic acid, 7.87; formic acid, 6.04 and ethanol, 5.24.     

Discovery of rare and highly toxic microcystins from lichen-associated cyanobacterium Nostoc sp. strain IO-102-I

The production of hepatotoxic cyclic heptapeptides, microcystins, is almost exclusively reported from planktonic cyanobacteria. Here we show that a terrestrial cyanobacterium Nostoc sp. strain IO-102-I isolated from a lichen association produces six different microcystins. Microcystins were identified with liquid chromatography-UV mass spectrometry by their retention times, UV spectra, mass fragmentation, and comparison to microcystins from the aquatic Nostoc sp. strain 152. The dominant microcystin produced by Nostoc sp. strain IO-102-I was the highly toxic [ADMAdda(5)]microcystin-LR, which accounted for ca. 80% of the total microcystins. We assigned a structure of [DMAdda(5)]microcystin-LR and [d-Asp(3),ADMAdda(5)]microcystin-LR and a partial structure of three new [ADMAdda(5)]-XR type of microcystin variants. Interestingly, Nostoc spp. strains IO-102-I and 152 synthesized only the rare ADMAdda and DMAdda subfamilies of microcystin variants. Phylogenetic analyses demonstrated congruence between genes involved directly in microcystin biosynthesis and the 16S rRNA and rpoC1 genes of Nostoc sp. strain IO-102-I. Nostoc sp. strain 152 and the Nostoc sp. strain IO-102-I are distantly related, revealing a sporadic distribution of toxin production in the genus Nostoc. Nostoc sp. strain IO-102-I is closely related to Nostoc punctiforme PCC 73102 and other symbiotic Nostoc strains and most likely belongs to this species. Together, this suggests that other terrestrial and aquatic strains of the genus Nostoc may have retained the genes necessary for microcystin biosynthesis.     

Fungal Metabolism of trans-2-Octenoic Acid

Juvenile hormone esterases (JHEs) function in juvenile hormone (JH) degradation. In the silkworm, Bombyx mori, we have characterized authentic JHE (Bmjhe) and five other carboxyl/cholinesterase (CCE) genes (Bmcce-1 to -5) with GQSAG, a motif sequence of JHE. But none of the genes appeared to function in vivo as a JHE, except for Bmjhe. Recently it was reported that the GQSAG motif might be dispensable, and that the Thr-316 residue has functional significance for JHE activity. On the basis of these findings, we identified two novel JHE candidates, Bmcce-6 and Bmcce-7, that lack GQSAG but possess Thr-316. In the CCE phylogenetic tree, BmCCE-6 was close to the lepidopteran JHE cluster, while BmCCE-7 constituted the same cluster as pheromone-degrading esterases. The developmental expression profiles were different among Bmjhe, Bmcce-6, and Bmcce-7. None of the proteins hydrolyzed JH in vitro. Our results suggest that only one CCE (BmJHE) functions as JHE in the silkworm.     

Yinzhihuang Oral Liquid Ameliorates Hyperbilirubinemia Induced by δ-Aminolevulinic Acid and Novobiocin in Neonatal Rats

Yinzhihuang oral liquid (YZH) is a traditional Chinese medicine that has been widely used in Asia to prevent and treat neonatal hyperbilirubinemia, but the published preclinical studies on its anti-hyperbilirubinemia effect are conducted in adult animals, partly due to the lack of preclinical neonatal hyperbilirubinemia animal models. In the present study, we tested six reagents to induce hyperbilirubinemia in neonatal rats, and established two appropriate neonatal hyperbilirubinemia rat models by subcutaneous injection of δ-Aminolevulinic acid (ALA, 200 mg/kg) or novobiocin (NOVO, 200 mg/kg). Oral treatment of YZH (80, 160 and 320 mg/kg) significantly decreased serum conjugated bilirubin levels in ALA-treated neonatal rats and serum unconjugated bilirubin levels in NOVO-treated neonatal rats, respectively. Additionally, pre-treatment of YZH also prevented the increase of serum bilirubin levels in both ALA- and NOVO-treated rats. Mechanistically, YZH significantly up-regulated the mRNA expression of genes involved in hepatic bilirubin disposition (organic anion-transporting polypeptide 1b2, Oatp1b2; multidrug resistance-associated protein 2, Mrp2) and bilirubin conjugation (UDP-glucuronosyltransferase 1a1, Ugt1a1). Additionally, YZH up-regulated the mRNA expression of cytochrome P450 1A1 (Cyp1a1), the target gene of aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR), and increased the nuclear protein levels of AhR in livers of neonatal rats. YZH and its two active ingredients, namely baicalin (BCL) and 4’-hydroxyacetophenone (4-HT), up-regulated the mRNA expression of AhR target genes (CYP1A1 and UGT1A1) and increased nuclear protein levels of AhR in HepG2 cells. In conclusion, the present study provides two neonatal hyperbilirubinemia animal models and evaluates the anti-hyperbilirubinemia effect and mechanisms of YZH in neonatal animals.     

Restoration of a defective Lactococcus lactis xylose isomerase

The genes (xylA) encoding xylose isomerase (XI) from two Lactococcus lactis subsp. lactis strains, 210 (Xyl(-)) and IO-1 (Xyl(+)), were cloned, and the activities of their expressed proteins in recombinant strains of Escherichia coli were investigated. The nucleotide and amino acid sequence homologies between the xylA genes were 98.4 and 98.6%, respectively, and only six amino acid residues differed between the two XIs. The purified IO-1 XI was soluble with K(m) and k(cat) being 2.25 mM and 184/s, respectively, while the 210 XI was insoluble and inactive. Site-directed mutagenesis on 210 xylA showed that a triple mutant possessing R202M/Y218D/V275A mutations regained XI activity and was soluble. The K(m) and k(cat) of this mutant were 4.15 mM and 141/s, respectively. One of the IO-1 XI mutants, S388T, was insoluble and showed negligible activity similar to that of 210 XI. The introduction of a K407E mutation to the IO-1 S388T XI mutant restored its activity and solubility. The dissolution of XI activity in L. lactis subsp. lactis involves a series of mutations that collectively eliminate enzyme activity by reducing the solubility of the enzyme.     

Optimization of substrate feed for continuous production of lactic acid by Lactococcus lactis IO-1

Summary Optimization of substrate feed for continuous production of lactic acid by the homofermentative bacterium, Lactococcus lactis IO-1, in glucose medium was investigated. A pH-dependent feed with two pH set-points, a lower set-point for neutralization with alkali and an upper set-point for substrate feed, proved better than continuous substrate feed with one pH set-point for neutralization with alkali only. Built-in electrodialysis with a cell-recycling system was tested and high cell density was achieved as a result of the use of enriched medium. However, specific lactate productivity in this system was not satisfactorily high. pH-dependent feed was combined with turbidity control and a cell recycling. With this system, we achieved high specific lactate productivity of 2 g (g-cell)^-1 h^-1 at a dilution rate of 0.5 h^-1, a dry cell weight of 5 g l ^-1, a level of lactate in the broth of 20 g l ^-1, and a concentration of glucose in the spent medium of about 5 gl ^-1.     

‘沙糖橘’S蛋白同源基因CrSPH的克隆与表达分析

该研究利用组学方法从续随子(Euphorbia lathyris)基因组数据库中鉴定出续随子溶血磷脂酸酰基转移酶(lysophosphatidic acid acyltransferase, LPAT)家族基因,并对其基因结构、蛋白理化性质、进化关系进行生物信息学分析,利用qRT-PCR等技术对该基因家族的时空表达特性进行分析,以探讨ElLPAT家族基因在调控种子脂肪酸生物合成中的作用。结果表明：(1)从续随子基因组共检测出5个LPAT家族基因,分别命名为ElLPAT1~5;ElLPAT1~5基因编码氨基酸长度介于237~388 aa之间,理论等电点在6.23~9.56之间。(2)系统进化分析显示,5个ElLPATs蛋白分别属于3个亚类,其中ElLPAT1属于1型LPAT,ElLPAT2和ElLPAT3属于2/3型LPAT,ElLPAT4和ElLPAT5属于4/5型LPAT。(3)实时荧光定量qRT-PCR结果显示,5个ElLPATs基因在续随子不同组织中均有表达,ElLPAT1和ElLPAT4在各组织中表达量较低;ElLPAT2在各组织中表达量较高,且在种子中表达量最高。研究推测,ElLPAT2在续随子种子油脂合成代谢过程中可能发挥重要作用。     

Improvement of bacterial transformation efficiency using plasmid artificial modification

We have developed a method to improve the transformation efficiency in genome-sequenced bacteria, using ‘Plasmid Artificial Modification’ (PAM), using the host''s own restriction system. In this method, a shuttle vector was pre-methylated in Escherichia coli cells, which carry all the putative genes encoding the DNA modification enzymes of the target microorganism, before electroporation was performed. In the case of Bifidobacterium adolescentis ATCC15703 and pKKT427 (3.9 kb E. coli-Bifidobacterium shuttle vector), introducing two Type II DNA methyltransferase genes lead to an enhancement in the transformation efficiency by five orders of magnitude. This concept was also applicable to a Type I restriction system. In the case of Lactococcus lactis IO-1, by using PAM with a putative Type I methyltransferase system, hsdMS1, the transformation efficiency was improved by a factor of seven over that without PAM.     

Isolation, Overexpression, and Biochemical Characterization of the Two Isoforms of Glutamic Acid Decarboxylase fromEscherichia coli

Escherichia coliglutamic acid decarboxylase is a pyridoxal phosphate-dependent enzyme that catalyzes the α-decarboxylation of glutamate to yield 4-aminobutyrate and CO₂. TheE. colichromosome contains two genes encoding for this enzyme,gadAandgadB,which map at distinctloci.Their protein products differ in only five amino acid residues, four of which are located in the N-terminal region (Smithet al.,1992,J. Bacteriol.174, 5820–5826). Herein, we report the sequences of the twogadgenes, including their regulatory regions. Both genes were separately cloned into the vector pQE60, for overexpression under the control of thelacpromoter. In this way, we have succeded in separately expressing large quantities of each pure isoform. The two isoforms were characterized biochemically and all evidence, including that from analysis of the complex pre-steady-state kinetic behavior of the enzymes, indicates that the functional properties of the two isoenzymes are identical.     

Statistical Analysis of Joint Effects of Major Genes and Polygenes in Quantitative Genetics

In this paper we analyze a quantitative genetic character which is controlled by both major genes and polygenes. Assuming that there are no epistatic effects, no linkage and no genetic-environmental interactions, we follow TAN and CHANG (1972) to derive the probability distributions for segregating populations. The numbers of major genes and polygenes, and the additive and dominance effects of major genes and polygenes are then estimated by using the procedures developed in TAN and CHANG (1972) and the POWELL -FLETCHER search procedure for maximum values. In this paper, we consider the case involving data from P₁, P₂, F₂, B₁ (Backcross to P₁) and B₂ (Backcross to P₂) as this type of experiment is common in practical applications. The analyses are applied to a simulated model generated by using binomial, multinomial and normal variables and to the data of an experiment on kernel weight of sorghum plant provided to the authors by Professor GEORGE H. L. LIANG of Kansas State University. The analysis of these data indicate clearly that the method derived in this paper is useful and desirable.     

Expression of a Brassica Isopropylmalate Synthase Gene in Arabidopsis Perturbs Both Glucosinolate and Amino Acid Metabolism

Isopropylmalate synthase (IPMS) is a key enzyme in the biosynthesis of the essential amino acid leucine, and thus primary metabolism. In Arabidopsis, the functionally similar enzyme, methythiolalkylmalate synthase (MAM), is an important enzyme in the elongation of methionine prior to glucosinolate (GSL) biosynthesis, as part of secondary metabolism. We describe the cloning of an IPMS gene from Brassica, BatIMS, and its functional characterisation by heterologous expression in E. coli and Arabidopsis. Over expression of BatIMS in Arabidopsis resulted in plants with an aberrant phenotype, reminiscent of mutants in GSL biosynthesis. Metabolite analyses showed that these plants had both perturbed amino acid metabolism and enhanced levels of GSLs. Microarray profiling showed that BatIMS over expression caused up regulation of the genes for methionine-derived GSL biosynthesis, and down regulation of genes involved in leucine catabolism, in addition to perturbed expression of genes involved in auxin and ethylene metabolism. The results illustrate the cross talk that can occur between primary and secondary metabolism within transgenic plants. Electronic Supplementary Material Supplementary material is available for this article at and is accessible for authorized users.