Reaction of Astaxanthin with Peroxynitrite

The in vitro reactivities of astaxanthin toward peroxynitrite were investigated and the reaction products after scavenging with peroxynitrite were analyzed in order to determine the complete mechanism of this reaction. A series of carotenoids, 13-apo-astaxanthinone (1), 12′-apo-15′-nitroastaxanthinal (2), 12′-apo-astaxanthinal (3), 10′-apo-astaxanthinal (4), 9-cis-14′-s-cis-15′-nitroastaxanthin (5), 14′-s-cis-15′-nitroastaxanthin (6), 13-cis-14′-s-cis-15′-nitroastaxanthin (7), 10′-s-cis-11′-cis-11′-nitroastaxanthin (8), 13,15,13′-tri-cis-15′-nitroastaxanthin (9), 9-cis-astaxanthin (10), and 13-cis-astaxanthin (11), were isolated from the reaction products of carotenoids with peroxynitrite. Our previous studies achieved for the first time the isolation of nitro derivatives from the reaction of astaxanthin with peroxynitrite. Here we identify the major remaining reaction products of this reaction and investigate the stabilities of the nitro astaxanthins.     

过氧亚硝基-鲁米诺化学发光体系的改进

建立了一个测定过氧亚硝基阴离子（ONOO^－）化学发光的改进体系,测试了某些抗氧化剂清除ONOO^－的作用,其体系的组成和启动发光的程序如下：向pH 10.5碳酸缓冲液配的0.01 mol/L浓度NaN₃溶液通O₃ 30 s,取其800 μl原位注入含有100 μl水配样品和100 μl的0.001 mol/L鲁米诺溶液中,启动化学发光（chemiluminescence, CL）,立即测定每6秒的脉冲数（CP6S）,连续测定10～30次.根据实际需要,选其某一次的CL强度作为评判指标,对比抗氧化剂的活性.该发光体系灵敏、简便、且较稳定,最低可检测限为8.74 μmol/L的ONOO^－量,线性范围为8.74～74.04 μmol/L.批内变异系数3.35%（n=10）,批间变异系数5.52%（n=10）.测得维生素C(Vit.C)、茶多酚（EGCG）、原花菁素、硫脲皆有抑制CL,即清除ONOO^－的作用.     

丹皮酚对过氧亚硝基阴离子致大鼠成骨细胞分化抑制的影响

探讨丹皮酚（Pae）拮抗过氧亚硝基阴离子（ONOO^-）对体外培养大鼠成骨细胞分化的影响。用改良的组织块法分离培养新生大鼠颅骨成骨细胞,采用淬灭流动反应方法体外制备ONOO^-,以不同终浓度加入成骨细胞培养体系,在作用不同时间后,用对硝基苯二钠动力学（PNPP）法检测细胞内碱性磷酸酶（ALP）的活性,用Lowry法测定蛋白含量,并以不同终浓度Pae消除ONOO^-（1000μmoL/L）对成骨细胞分化的影响。结果显示,不同浓度的ONOO^-（50-1000μmoL/L）均能抑制碱性磷酸酶的活性,影响分化;高浓度的丹皮酚（10^-3-10^-6mol/L）能消除ONOO^-（1000μmoL/L）对碱性磷酸酶活性的抑制,拮抗ONOO^-抑制成骨细胞分化的作用。     

Studies on the Cellular Uptake of Retinol Binding Protein and Retinol

The uptake and release of (125)I-RBP and of holoRBP labeled with [(3)H]retinol ((3)H-ROH) were studied in two cell lines which synthesize and secrete RBP, the HepG2 hepatocarcinoma cell line and the Caki-1 kidney adenocarcinoma cell line, and in HeLa cells that do not express the endogenous RBP gene. In all three cell lines a part of endocytosed (125)I-RBP is recycled to the extracellular medium and part is degraded. Nonspecific endocytosis of (125)I-RBP was estimated to be approximately 10% of total endocytosed (125)I-RBP. In HepG2 cells the (3)H-ROH from the [(3)H]retinol-RBP complex ((3)H-ROH-RBP) is recycled bound to RBP into serum-free chase medium. This (3)H-ROH recycling is blocked in HepG2 cells by cyclohexymide and by brefeldin A, an inhibitor of protein export from the main secretory route, and is absent in HeLa cells, which do not synthesize RBP. These data suggest that at least part of retinol taken up from exogenous holoRBP is delivered to newly synthesized RBP. (3)H-ROH recycled by HeLa cells is bound to serum albumin, as is a portion of that recycled by HepG2 cells. Transfer of (3)H-ROH from RBP to serum albumin does not occur in the absence of cells. We conclude that RBP is endocytosed through a specific pathway and that the RBP-associated retinol is transferred to newly synthesized RBP or to serum albumin.     

Reactions of Peroxynitrite and Nitrite with Organic Molecules and Hemoglobin

In this work, the reactions of nitrite (NO2-) and peroxynitrite (ONOO-) with organic molecules as well as with hemoglobin (Hb) were examined and the potential interference with the detection of hydrogen peroxide and Hb was investigated. ONOO- at low concentrations (35-140 microM) induced a concentration-dependent oxidation of o-phenylenediamine and guaiacol, and this process can be improved by the addition of Hb in a concentration-dependent manner. This enhancing effect of Hb was possibly due to the formation of such highly reactive species as ferrylHb during the reaction of ONOO- and Hb. NO2- also oxidized the aromatic amine o-phenylenediamine, but its efficiency was much lower than that of ONOO-. A 300-fold excess of NO2- over hydrogen peroxide inhibited the oxidation of Pyrogallol Red mediated by hydrogen peroxide and Hb, which was due in part to the reaction of NO2- with Hb ferryl species compound I and compound II and the phenoxyl radical. These data suggest that ONOO- and NO2- can interfere with the detection of hydrogen peroxide. The overestimation or underestimation of the hydrogen peroxide detected is dependent upon the organic molecule utilized for detection and the relative rate of NO2-, superoxide, and ONOO- generation.     

Catalysis of Peroxynitrite Reactions by Manganese and Iron Porphyrins

Kinetics and products of peroxynitrite anionO≡NOO⁻reactions, catalyzed by water-soluble-manganese and iron porphyrins, were studied under basic and neutral conditions. In the absence of organic substrates peroxynitrite decomposes catalytically to give nitrite and dioxygen as major products. Catalytic decomposition competes with direct oxidation of sulfoxide to sulfone, while phenol is catalytically nitrated ino- andp-positions. A reaction mechanism is proposed.     

视黄醇结合蛋白RBP4可与多种核受体相互作用

视黄醇结合蛋白 (retinolbindingprotein ,RBP4 )是体内一种重要的转运蛋白 ,主要负责结合、转运全反式视黄醇 (维生素A ,VitA ) .VitA及其衍生物如11 cis 视黄醛、all trans 视黄酸等 ,均是体内非常重要的疏水分子 ,与视觉循环、胚胎发育等多种过程有关 .RBP4的功能障碍会导致     

Peroxynitrite activates K+-Cl- cotransport in human erythrocytes

Peroxynitrite was found to induce the release of K+ via the Na+/Cl- cotransport system, as do other oxidants. Since peroxynitrite is formed in vivo, its presence could contribute to a pathological dehydration of red blood cells.     

Peroxynitrite oxidizes erythrocyte membrane band 3 protein and diminishes its anion transport capacity

We describe an altered membrane band 3 protein-mediated anion transport in erythrocytes exposed to peroxynitrite, and relate the loss of anion transport to cell damage and to band 3 oxidative modifications. We found that peroxynitrite down-regulate anion transport in a dose dependent relation (100-300 μmoles/l). Hemoglobin oxidation was found at all peroxynitrite concentrations studied. A dose-dependent band 3 protein crosslinking and tyrosine nitration were also observed. Band 3 protein modifications were concomitant with a decrease in transport activity. ( - )-Epicatechin avoids band 3 protein nitration but barely affects its transport capacity, suggesting that both processes are unrelated. N-acetyl cysteine partially reverted the loss of band 3 transport capacity. It is concluded that peroxynitrite promotes a decrease in anion transport that is partially due to the reversible oxidation of band 3 cysteine residues. Additionally, band 3 tyrosine nitration seems not to be relevant for the loss of its anion transport capacity.     

柠檬酸铁对过亚硝酸根硝化酪氨酸反应的影响

由一氧化氮和超氧阴离子迅速反应生成的过亚硝酸根(ONOO^-)是一种强细胞毒性物质. 使含酚基物质如酪氨酸等硝化,是过亚硝酸根损伤生物系统的重要途径之一. 研究了柠檬酸铁和草酸铁对过亚硝酸根硝化酪氨酸反应的影响.在生理pH条件下柠檬酸铁和草酸铁对硝化反应无影响. 在弱酸性条件下柠檬酸铁和草酸铁可催化硝化反应. 对pH影响铁配合物在硝化反应中的催化活性的原因进行了讨论.     

Peroxynitrite oxidizes erythrocyte membrane band 3 protein and diminishes its anion transport capacity

We describe an altered membrane band 3 protein-mediated anion transport in erythrocytes exposed to peroxynitrite, and relate the loss of anion transport to cell damage and to band 3 oxidative modifications. We found that peroxynitrite down-regulate anion transport in a dose dependent relation (100–300 μmoles/l). Hemoglobin oxidation was found at all peroxynitrite concentrations studied. A dose-dependent band 3 protein crosslinking and tyrosine nitration were also observed. Band 3 protein modifications were concomitant with a decrease in transport activity. ( ? )-Epicatechin avoids band 3 protein nitration but barely affects its transport capacity, suggesting that both processes are unrelated. N-acetyl cysteine partially reverted the loss of band 3 transport capacity. It is concluded that peroxynitrite promotes a decrease in anion transport that is partially due to the reversible oxidation of band 3 cysteine residues. Additionally, band 3 tyrosine nitration seems not to be relevant for the loss of its anion transport capacity.     

人肝脏辅酶Ⅱ依赖性视黄醇脱氢/还原酶的表达与细胞内定位

应用杆状病毒蛋白表达系统在Sf9细胞中对人肝脏辅酶Ⅱ依赖性视黄醇脱氢／还原酶(NADP-dependent retinol dehydrogenase／reductase,NRDR)进行表达。以纯化的重组蛋白质为材料,分析NRDR的催化活性和酶促反应性质。结果证实,人肝脏NRDR具有视黄醛还原酶活性,在辅酶Ⅱ存在条件下其催化视黄醛还原成视黄醇的Km值和Vmax值分别(2.8±0.24)μM和(0.468±0.036)μmol／(min·mg)。构建删除和不删除羧基端过氧化物酶体定位信号SRL序列的NRDR绿色荧光蛋白报告基因表达载体。转染HeLa细胞后,应用免疫荧光双染色的方法分析NRDR细胞内定位。结果表明NRDR定位在细胞内过氧化物酶体。羧基端SRL序列对NRDR定位到过氧化物酶体是必需的,删除SRL序列的NRDR分布在细胞质中。因此,人肝脏NRDR是存在于过氧化物酶体中的辅酶Ⅱ依赖性视黄醛还原酶。     

The Effect of Cholesterol in the Liposome Bilayer on the Stabilization of Incorporated Retinol

The effect of cholesterol in the liposome bilayer on the stability of incorporated retinol was studied. Retinol was incorporated into liposomes containing soybean phosphatidylcholine (PC) and cholesterol (CH) at various ratios, and the liposomes were prepared as multilamellar vesicles by the dehydration–rehydration method. Retinol readily incorporated into liposomes at a ratio of 0.01:1 (w/w) retinol:lipid, with over 94.52% being incorporated in all conditions studied. The incorporation efficiency of retinol increased slightly with increasing CH content in the liposome and with increasing pH of the hydration buffer. Average particle size increased as the CH content increased, and mean particle sizes at pH 5, 7, and 9 were 30.27, 89.53, and 41.42 µm, respectively. The time course of retinol degradation in aqueous solution in liposomes with various ratios of PC to CH was determined under a variety of pH conditions (pH 5, 7, and 9), and temperatures (4, 25, 37, and 50°C). The stability of incorporated retinol was enhanced by increasing the CH content. At pH 7.0 and 4°C, for example, 90.17% of the retinol in liposomes containing 50:50 (PC:CH) remained after 10 days of storage, whereas 51.46% remained at 100:0 (PC:CH). These results indicate that CH in liposomes greatly increases the incorporation efficiency of retinol and the stability of incorporated retinol.     

Preferential Recognition of Peroxynitrite Damaged Thymidine-Monophosphate by Anti-DNA Autoantibodies in Systemic Lupus Erythematosus

This study was undertaken to investigate the role of peroxynitrite (ONOO^?) modified thymine-5′-monophosphate (TMP) in the generation of anti-DNA autoantibodies in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE). TMP was exposed to ONOO^? in vitro and challenged in vivo. TMP and ONOO^?-modified-TMP were found to be nonimmunogenic in rabbits. TMP-linked-BSA and ONOO^?-modified-TMP-BSA induced high titer antibodies. Induced antibodies against ONOO^?-TMP-BSA show crossreactions with nucleic acids conformers. A high degree of specific binding by SLE autoantibodies with ONOO^?-TMP-BSA was observed. Our novel results provide an important insight into the immunological basis of anti-DNA autoantibodies generation in SLE.     

过氧亚硝酸阴离子通过鸟苷酸环化酶途径抑制钠电流影响海马神经元兴奋性

过氧亚硝酸阴离子（ONOO-）是一种性质活泼的自由基,可引起强的氧化性损伤,介导了一氧化氮（NO）的大部分毒性作用．应用全细胞膜片钳技术,探讨ONOO-对脑片海马神经元电压门控钠通道电流（INa）和神经元兴奋性的影响．结果表明,ONOO-供体SIN-1（10,500,2000μmol／L）可浓度依赖性抑制INa电流峰值．SIN-1与ONOO-清除剂尿酸共处理,并不影响INa．500μmol／L的SIN-1可使INa的I-V曲线上移,并可抑制其失活后恢复过程,但对INa的激活和失活过程无影响．SIN-1还可抑制动作电位发放频率和幅值．脑片预处理腺苷酸环化酶（adenylate cyclase,AC）抑制剂MDL-12,330A（25μmol／L）和NEM（50μmol／L）对SIN-1的作用无影响．然而,预处理鸟苷酸环化酶（CG）抑制剂ODQ可抑制SIN-1对INa的作用．以上结果提示,ONOO-通过cGMP-INa-AP信号级联系统作用于海马神经元,与PKA和蛋白巯基亚硝化途径无关,这可能是ONOO-神经毒性的机制之一．     

Peroxynitrite induces tyrosine residue modifications in synaptophysin C-terminal domain, affecting its interaction with src

Peroxynitrite is a potent oxidant that contributes to tissue damage in neurodegenerative disorders. We have previously reported that treatment of rat brain synaptosomes with peroxynitrite induced post-translational modifications in pre- and post-synaptic proteins and stimulated soluble N -ethylmaleimide sensitive fusion proteins attachment receptor complex formation and endogenous glutamate release. In this study we show that, following peroxynitrite treatment, the synaptic vesicle protein synaptophysin (SYP) can be both phosphorylated and nitrated in a dose-dependent manner. We found that tyrosine-phosphorylated, but not tyrosine-nitrated, SYP bound to the src tyrosine kinase and enhanced its catalytic activity. These effects were mediated by direct and specific binding of the SYP cytoplasmic C-terminal tail with the src homology 2 domain. Using mass spectrometry analysis, we mapped the SYP C-terminal tail tyrosine residues modified by peroxynitrite and found one nitration site at Tyr250 and two phosphorylation sites at Tyr263 and Tyr273. We suggest that peroxynitrite-mediated modifications of SYP may be relevant in modulating src signalling of synaptic terminal in pathophysiological conditions.     

Peroxynitrite Mediated Oxidation of Purine Bases of Nucleosides and Isolated DNA

Reaction of nitric oxide with superoxide anion produces the highly reactive species peroxynitrite (ONOO^?). This compound has been shown to be a strong oxidant of lipids and proteins. However, no data are available on its effect on DNA, with the exception of the induction of strand breaks. We report the result of studies on the reactions of peroxynitrite with the adenine and guanine moieties of nucleosides and isolated DNA. The samples were analyzed for 8-oxo-7,8-dihydro-2′-deoxyguano-sine (8-oxo-dGuo), 2,2-diamino-4–[(2-deoxy-β-D-erythro-pentofuranosyl)amino]-5–(2H)-oxazolone (oxazolone) and 8-oxo-7,8-dihydro-2′-deoxyadenosine (8-oxo-dAdo). The effects of peroxynitrite treatment were compared with those of ionizing radiation in aerated aqueous solution, chosen as a source of hydroxyl radicals. At the nucleoside level, both oxidizing conditions led to the formation of oxazolone and 8-oxo-dAdo. In addition, evidence was provided for the formation of the 4R* and 4S* diastereoisomers of 4-hydroxy-8-oxo-4,8-dihydro-2′-deoxyguanosine. The latter dGuo oxidation products were chosen as markers of the release of singlet oxygen (¹O₂) upon reaction of peroxynitrous acid with hydrogen peroxide. Oxidation of purine bases was then studied within isolated DNA. A significant increase in the level of 8-oxp-dGuo, oxazolone and 8-oxo-dAdo was observed within double stranded DNA upon exposure to γ-radiation. Oxazolone and 8-oxo-dAdo were formed upon peroxynitrite treatment but no significant increase in the amount of 8-oxo-dGuo was detected. These results showed that peroxynitrite exhibits oxidizing properties toward purine moieties both in nucleosides and isolated DNA. However, the significant differences in the oxidative damage distribution within DNA observed after exposure to γ radiation by comparison with peroxynitrite treatment questions the involvement of hydroxyl radicals as the main oxidizing species released by decomposition of peroxynitrous acid.     

Formation of Nitrated and Hydroxylated Aromatic Compounds from Benzene and Peroxynitrite, A Possible Mechanism of Benzene Genotoxicity

Peroxynitrite, the reaction product of nitric oxide (NO*) and superoxide anion (O*-) produced during immune activation by a variety of inflammatory cells, may contribute to genotoxicity of benzene through its ability to carry out hydroxylation and nitration. After exposure of benzene to synthesised peroxynitrite, phenol, nitrophenols (p-nitrophenol, o-nitrophenol and m-nitrophenol) and nitrobenzene were identified in the reaction mixture by HPLC separation and single UV wavelength and diode array detection. The formation of phenol, nitrophenols and nitrobenzene showed a linear relationship with both benzene and peroxynitrite concentrations. The molar ratio for phenol/(nitrobenzene and nitrophenols) was approximately 9/5 with a total product yield of 14% hydroxylated and nitrated products as based on peroxynitrite. The physiological relevance of the chemical reaction between benzene and peroxynitrite was tested by detecting the reaction products in human neutrophils (2.5 ± 10⁷ cells/ml) incubated with 10 mM benzene for 25 min. The concentration of phenol and p-nitrophenol were found to be 1.29 ± 0.22 and 1.56 ± 0.61 μM mean ± SD) in the incubation medium of the neutrophils pretreated with phorbol myristate acetate (500 nM) for 5 min, respectively, whereas no metabolites were detected if the neutrophils were not pretreated. Nitrated aromatic compounds are known to be more carcinogenic than the parent compounds. It is reported that acute and chronic infection increases the risk of cancer at various sites; and that anti-inflammatory agents decrease benzene myelotoxicity. We suggest that the increased production of peroxynitrite during chronic inflammation combined with benzene exposure may increase the carcinogenicity of benzene by a mechanism that includes the formation of metabolites from the chemical reaction between benzene and peroxynitrite. Thus, peroxynitrite mediated hydroxylation and nitration of benzene during immune activation represent a novel in vivo mechanism for generation of proximal carcinogens of benzene.     

Peroxynitrite affects exocytosis and SNARE complex formation and induces tyrosine nitration of synaptic proteins

The reactive species peroxynitrite, formed via the near diffusion-limited reaction of nitric oxide and superoxide anion, is a potent oxidant that contributes to tissue damage in neurodegenerative disorders. Peroxynitrite readily nitrates tyrosine residues in proteins, producing a permanent modification that can be immunologically detected. We have previously demonstrated that in the nerve terminal, nitrotyrosine immunoreactivity is primarily associated with synaptophysin. Here we identify two other presynaptic proteins nitrated by peroxynitrite, Munc-18 and SNAP25, both of which are involved in sequential steps leading to vesicle exocytosis. To investigate whether peroxynitrite affects vesicle exocytosis, we used the fluorescent dye FM1-43 to label a recycling population of secretory vesicles within the synaptosomes. Bolus addition of peroxynitrite stimulated exocytosis and glutamate release. Notably, these effects were strongly reduced in the presence of NaHCO(3), indicating that peroxynitrite acts mainly intracellularly. Furthermore, peroxynitrite enhanced the formation of the sodium dodecyl sulfate-resistant SNARE complex in a dose-dependent manner (100-1000 microm) and induced the formation of 3-nitrotyrosine in proteins of SNARE complex. These data suggest that modification(s) of synaptic vesicle proteins induced by peroxynitrite may affect protein-protein interactions in the docking/fusion steps, thus promoting exocytosis, and that, under excessive production of superoxide and nitric oxide, neurons may up-regulate neuronal signaling.     

Retinol binding protein-albumin domain III fusion protein deactivates hepatic stellate cells

Liver fibrosis is characterized by accumulation of extracellular matrix, and activated hepatic stellate cells (HSCs) are the primary source of the fibrotic neomatrix and considered as therapeutic target cells. We previously showed that albumin in pancreatic stellate cells (PSCs), the key cell type for pancreatic fibrogenesis, is directly involved in the formation of vitamin A-containing lipid droplets, inhibiting PSC activation. In this study, we evaluated the anti-fibrotic activity of both albumin and retinol binding protein-albumin domain III fusion protein (R-III), designed for stellate cell-targeted delivery of albumin III, in rat primary HSCs and investigated the underlying mechanism. Forced expression of albumin or R-III in HSCs after passage 2 (activated HSCs) induced lipid droplet formation and deactivated HSCs, whereas point mutations in high-affinity fatty acid binding sites of albumin domain III abolished their activities. Exogenous R-III, but not albumin, was successfully internalized into and deactivated HSC-P2. When HSCs at day 3 after plating (pre-activated HSCs) were cultured in the presence of purified R-III, spontaneous activation of HSCs was inhibited even after passage 2, suggestive of a potential for preventive effect. Furthermore, treatment of HSCs-P2 with R-III led to a significant reduction in both cytoplasmic levels of all-trans retinoic acid and the subsequent retinoic acid signaling. Therefore, our data suggest that albumin deactivates HSCs with reduced retinoic acid levels and that R-III may have therapeutic and preventive potentials on liver fibrosis.