Brief Communication: A likely case of scurvy in a rural Early Classic Maya burial from Actun Uayazba Kab,Belize

A Maya burial of a late adolescent (Burial 98‐3) found in the rockshelter entrance of Actun Uayazba Kab (AUK), Belize, displays a combination of lesions that is consistent with scurvy. Signs include large, active lesions on the posterior surfaces of maxilla; relatively mild porotic hyperostosis along the midline of the skull on the parietals and occipital; cribra orbitalia; potential pinprick lesions on the greater wings of sphenoid and temporal; reactive lesions on the palate, temporal lines of frontal and parietals, and external and internal surfaces of zygomatics; small lesions on the popliteal surfaces of both femora; and periodontal disease. Identification of scurvy at AUK potentially informs the analysis of other primary burials and scattered bone found there and at other nearby sites, which often reveal evidence of nonspecific lesions that are usually attributed to anemia and infection, but that are also consistent with scurvy. The social and ecological context of this Protoclassic (0–AD 300) individual, who lived in a rural agricultural community with no evidence of complex social hierarchy, contrasts with typical discussions of disease among the Maya, which tend to focus on the degrading effects of overcrowding and resource deficiencies. While scurvy has been largely overlooked in the Maya area, this study supports earlier arguments for its presence that were based largely on clinical and ethnographic analogies and suggests the need to incorporate scurvy into broader synergistic models of ancient health. Am J Phys Anthropol 155:476–481, 2014. © 2014 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Porotic Hyperostosis and Paleoepidemiology: A Forensic Perspective on Anemia among the Ancient Maya

Porotic lesions caused by childhood anemia are commonly found on ancient Maya crania and have been cited as evidence for extremely poor nutrition during the Classic Period. We reconsider this characterization in the light of recent data on childhood anemia in rural Guatemala and the prevalence of porotic hyperostosis in crania of forensic skeletal remains of rural highland Maya from Plan de Sanchez, Baja Verapaz, which date to 1982. The abundance of porotic hyperostosis in adults from Plan de Sanchez fits well with the number of modern rural children suffering from anemia, but the lesions are very rare compared to archaeological series. Although some minor change in diet and infection may contribute to differences in porotic hyperostosis, it is likely that higher mortality leads to fewer anemic lesions in modern adult crania. We hypothesize that more anemic children survived to adulthood in the past than do today, [iron-deficiency anemia, porotic hyperostosis, Maya, nutrition, forensic anthropology, osteological paradox]     

Probable evidence of scurvy in subadults from archeological sites in Peru

Subadult scurvy is not well documented in archeological human remains despite the existence of many biomedical references indicating that bone changes do occur in some cases and, because of this, should be observable in human burials. There are several potential reasons for this gap in our knowledge of scurvy. Not all children who suffered from scurvy died of the disease or from other causes when they had scurvy. Scurvy may not leave characteristic bone changes in every case of the disease. Some of the pathological conditions associated with scurvy have been known for many years, but these features may be rare or difficult to differentiate from other pathological conditions. Recently a lesion of the skull has been described that is probably pathognomonic for scurvy, specifically porous and sometimes hypertrophic lesions of the greater wing of the sphenoid. This lesion is bilateral and highly associated with evidence of inflammation at other anatomical sites in the skull. A survey of subadult skulls (N = 363) in the human skeletal collection from Peru at the National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution, reveals a prevalence of 10% of skulls that exhibit plausible evidence of scurvy. Some cases of scurvy also have cribra orbitalia that has been attributed to anemia. In most of the Peruvian scurvy cases, anemia is an unlikely possibility because there is no evidence of marrow hyperplasia. This highlights the need for caution in using lesions of the orbit as an indicator of anemia when there is no other evidence of this disease elsewhere in the skeleton. Anatomical evidence of scurvy offers the potential of providing new and important evidence of diet in archeological human populations.     

The hunters and the hunted revisited

The dietary niches of extinct animals, including hominids and predators, may be constrained using stable carbon isotope ratios in fossil tooth enamel.(13)C/(12)C ratios of many of the primates abundant in the faunal assemblages of Members 1 and 2 at Swartkrans, including cercopithecoids and Australopithecus (Paranthropus) robustus, and a range of other possible prey species, have been reported previously. Resulting suggestions of a mixed, or omnivorous, diet for A. robustus raise questions about niche overlap with coeval, larger brained Homo. Here we present(13)C/(12)C data from Homo and several large predators including Panthera pardus, Dinofelis sp., Megantereon cultridens and Chasmoporthetes nitidula in Member 1, and P. pardus and P. leo in Member 2, in order to compare the two hominid species and to determine likely predators of the various primates and other macrovertebrates. Results for three Homo cf. ergaster individuals are indistinguishable from those of A. robustus, showing that proportions of C(3)- and C(4)-based foods in their diets did not differ. P. pardus, Megantereon and Crocuta are shown to be likely predators of the hominids and Papio baboons in Member 1, while the Dinofelis individual concentrated on prey which consumed C(4)grasses. The hunting hyaenid C. nitidula preyed on either mixed feeders or on a range of animals across the spectrum of C(3)and C(4)variation. The data from Members 1 and 2 confirm a shift in leopard diets towards animals that consumed C(4)grasses.     

Subadult health and disease in prehistoric Tonga, Polynesia

This article focuses on the differential diagnosis of pathologic lesions recorded on the limbs and crania of 17 subadults from two pre-European burial mounds in Tonga, western Polynesia. All affected subadults were between the ages of 6 months and 3 years at death. The lesions described consist primarily of subperiosteal new bone deposition on the limbs and endocranial surface. However, the presence of cribra orbitalia in a number of individuals indicates concurrent iron-deficiency anaemia. A differential diagnosis of haematogenous osteomyelitis, congenital syphilis, yaws, scurvy, hypervitaminosis A, trauma, Caffey's disease, and iron-deficiency anaemia is discussed. It was concluded that the most likely cause for the lesions observed is a synergistic relation between infection (weanling diarrhoea, yaws) and metabolic disease (scurvy and possibly hypervitaminosis A). Trauma is not ruled out as contributing to the development of some pathologic lesions. It is concluded that, in the Pacific Islands at least, multiple causes for skeletal pathology in subadults should be considered rather than a single aetiology.     

Dental caries and antemortem tooth loss in the Northern Peten area,Mexico: a biocultural perspective on social status differences among the Classic Maya

Dental caries and antemortem tooth loss (AMTL) are investigated in a Classic Maya sample obtained from the sites of Calakmul, Dzibanché, and Kohunlich (Mexico). This study aims at assessing the effect that sex and social status had on the prevalence of oral pathologies. The lack of a direct relationship between caries, AMTL, and age-at-death led us to interpret the results in terms of the biological, socioeconomic, and behavioral conditions prevailing in these ancient Maya settlements. Benefits related to sex and social status are evident in the frequency of carious lesions, which appear less frequently in elite males than in low-status individuals of both sexes and in elite females. Individuals from problematic mortuary contexts and isolated bone assemblages, who could not be ascribed to any status group, showed the highest rates of caries. Sex discrimination in dietary preferences appears in the elite sample, while the homogeneity encountered between sexes in the low-status segment suggests a more uniform access to resources. Tooth loss clearly distinguishes elite individuals from commoners, regardless of sex, with the former bearing a much higher rate of loss. In individuals from the undefined mortuary assemblages and sacrificial contexts, it was even more pronounced than in the other groups, although its interpretation is problematic due to a lack of associated funerary data. The overall evidence from oral pathologies is interpreted to be the result of deficient oral hygiene coupled with a softer and more refined diet in the high-status population, particularly males. Whereas elite males' subsistence was apparently based more on animal proteins and relatively soft and refined foods, a diet relying on carbohydrates may account for the observed rate of oral pathologies in elite females and commoners.     

Assessing diagnostic certainty for scurvy and rickets in human skeletal remains

Objectives

Identifying scurvy and rickets has important implications for understanding adaptations and variability among past communities, and bioarchaeologists now regularly evaluate these conditions. Due to the increased number of studies, cases with less clear-cut lesions and variable preservation are now frequently reported. Despite an improved understanding of the biological mechanisms for disease expression, there is a lack of consensus on the language used to express diagnostic certainty, limiting comparability. This article aims to address these issues and provide recommendations on more consistent diagnostic terminology using widely accepted diagnostic methodology based on biological mechanisms.

Materials and Methods

We review diagnostic terms used in bioarchaeology by considering published cases of rickets, scurvy and co-occurrence alongside M.B.B.'s past project notes. We also consider differences in the diagnosis of rickets and scurvy in living and archeological individuals.

Results

We provide recommendations on a framework that can be used to show diagnostic certainty in cases of rickets, scurvy, and co-occurrence. Core lesions of rickets and scurvy are used alongside a limited lexicon of diagnostic terminology based on the Istanbul protocol.

Discussion

It is not the number of lesions that determines whether an individual is assigned to a particular diagnosis category, but rather the range and expression of lesions present. Avoiding a “tick-list” approach to core lesions of these diseases will be critical to ensure that identifying rickets and scurvy continues to contribute to understanding adaptations and variability among past communities. The framework allows more consistency in diagnostic certainty, facilitating greater comparability in research.     

Diet and social status on Taumako,a Polynesian outlier in the Southeastern Solomon Islands

Stable isotopes (δ¹³C, δ¹⁵N, and δ³⁴S) are used to characterize the diet of the adult individuals (n = 99) interred in the Namu burial ground located on the Polynesian outlier of Taumako (～300–750 BP). Polynesian outliers are islands on the fringe of Remote Oceania that were inhabited by a back migration of populations from Polynesia during prehistory. As a result of admixture with nearby island communities, little is known about the social structure and social diversity of the prehistoric inhabitants of Taumako. The distribution of prestige grave goods within the Namu cemetery has been used as evidence to support the premise that Taumakoan social structure was stratified like Polynesian societies. Here we test the hypothesis that “wealthy” individuals and males will display isotopic ratios indicative of the consumption of “high status” foods in the Pacific islands such as pork, chicken, sea turtle, and pelagic fish. The isotope results suggest the δ³⁴S values were diagenetically altered, possibly an effect of volcanism. The carbon and nitrogen stable isotope ratios indicate that the diet of all the individuals included a mixture of C₃ terrestrial plant foods (likely starchy staples such as yam, taro, and breadfruit, in addition to nuts) and a variety of marine resources, including reef and pelagic fish. The stable isotope results indicate that wealthy individuals and males were eating more foods from higher trophic levels, interpreted as being high status animal foods. The socially differentiated food consumption patterns are discussed within a Pacific island context. Am J Phys Anthropol 151:589–603, 2013. © 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Macroscopic features of scurvy in human skeletal remains: A literature synthesis and diagnostic guide

The past two decades have seen a proliferation in bioarchaeological literature on the identification of scurvy, a disease caused by chronic vitamin C deficiency, in ancient human remains. This condition is one of the few nutritional deficiencies that can result in diagnostic osseous lesions. Scurvy is associated with low dietary diversity and its identification in human skeletal remains can provide important contextual information on subsistence strategy, resource allocation, and human-environmental interactions in past populations. A large and robust methodological body of work on the paleopathology of scurvy exists. However, the diagnostic criteria for this disease employed by bioarchaeologists have not always been uniform. Here we draw from previous research on the skeletal manifestations of scurvy in adult and juvenile human skeletal remains and propose a weighted diagnostic system for its identification that takes into account the pathophysiology of the disease, soft tissue anatomy, and clinical research. Using a sample of individuals from the prehistoric Atacama Desert in Northern Chile, we also provide a practical example of how diagnostic value might be assigned to skeletal lesions of the disease that have not been previously described in the literature.     

Stable isotope evidence for sex- and status-based variations in diet and life history at medieval Trino Vercellese, Italy

The medieval period in Europe was a time of unprecedented social complexity that affected human diet. The diets of certain subgroups-for example, children, women, and the poor-are chronically underrepresented in historical sources from the medieval period. To better understand diet and the distribution of foods during the medieval period, we investigated stable carbon and nitrogen isotope ratios of 30 individuals from Trino Vercellese, Northern Italy (8th-13th c.). Specifically, we examined diet differences between subgroups (males and females, and high- and low-status individuals), and diet change throughout the life course among these groups by comparing dentine and bone collagen. Our results show a diet based on terrestrial resources with input from C(4) plants, which could include proso and/or foxtail millet. Diets of low-status males differ from those of females (both status groups) and of high-status males. These differences develop in adulthood. Childhood diets are similar among the subgroups, but sex- and status-based differences appear in adulthood. We discuss the possibility of cultural buffering and dietary selectivity of females and high-status individuals.     

Differential resource utilization by extant great apes and australopithecines: towards solving the C4 conundrum

Morphological and biogeochemical evidence suggest that australopithecines had diets markedly different from those of extant great apes. Stable carbon isotope analysis, for example, has shown that significant amounts of the carbon consumed by australopithecines were derived from C(4) photosynthesis in plants. This means that australopithecines were eating large quantities of C(4) plants such as tropical grasses and sedges, or were eating animals that were themselves eating C(4) plants. In contrast, there is no evidence that modern apes consume appreciable amounts of any of these foods, even in the most arid extents of their ranges where these foods are most prevalent. Environmental reconstructions of early australopithecine environments overlap with modern chimpanzee habitats. This, in conjunction with the stable isotope evidence, suggests that australopithecines and great apes, even in similar environments, would utilize available resources differently. Thus, the desire or capacity to use C(4) foods may be a basal character of our lineage. We do not know, however, which of the nutritionally disparate C(4) foods were utilized by hominids. Here we discuss which C(4) resources were most likely consumed by australopithecines, as well as the potential nutritional, physiological, and social consequences of eating these foods.     

Skeletal manifestations of infantile scurvy

Recent investigations of human skeletal material from the historic St. Martin's cemetery, England, found a range of abnormal lesions in six infants that are almost certainly related to scurvy. Porous and proliferative bone lesions affecting the cranial bones and scapulae were found, and this paper presents images obtained using both macroscopic and scanning electron microscope examination of the lesions. Previous work on infantile scurvy (Ortner et al., 1997-2001) relied heavily on changes at the sphenoid, which is often missing in archaeological bone, so the identification of changes attributable to scurvy on other cranial bones and the scapulae is encouraging. The ability to recognize changes related to scurvy on a range of bones will ensure an enhanced potential for recognition of this disease in future research involving archaeological bone. Research on historical documents from Birmingham dating to the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, combined with the probable cases of scurvy identified, supports the view that the paucity of cases of infantile scurvy from the archaeological record reflects a lack of understanding and recognition of bone manifestations, rather than a lack of occurrence in this period. Changes linked to scurvy were only found in infants from the poorer sections of the community from St. Martin's, and this is almost certainly linked to patterns of food consumption and may be related to shortages of potatoes, due to blight, experienced during this period.     

Stable nitrogen and carbon isotope ratios in bone collagen as indices of prehistoric dietary dependence on marine and terrestrial resources in southern California

The ratios of 15N to 14N and 13C to 12C tend to be higher in marine than in terrestrial organisms. The concentrations of these isotopes in human bone collagen consequently can be used to make inferences about the contribution of marine and terrestrial resources to prehistoric diets. The utility of studying 15N/14N and 13C/12C ratios in conjunction with each other is illustrated by our analysis of 40 human burials from archaeological sites in the Santa Barbara Channel area of southern California. The mean delta 13C and delta 15N values (in per mil) of collagen from these skeletons decrease progressively from the Channel Islands (delta 13C = -14.0, delta 15N = +16.3) to the mainland coast (delta 13C = -14.5, delta 15N = +14.9) to the interior (delta 13C = -17.2, delta 15N = +10.9). These data suggest that Indians living on the Channel Islands during the late prehistoric period were heavily dependent on marine resources. The inhabitants of the mainland interior, in contrast, had a diet composed largely of terrestrial foods. From their isotope ratios, it appears that the Indians who lived on the mainland coast consumed a mixed diet containing substantial quantities of both marine and terrestrial resources. Differences in 15N/14N and 13C/12C ratios of individuals from mainland sites dating from the early and late prehistoric periods show that the marine component of the diet increased substantially through time. These isotopic data are consistent with pathological, faunal, and artifactual evidence of increased marine resource exploitation during the late prehistoric period.     

Life and death in a civitas capital: Metabolic disease and trauma in the children from late Roman Dorchester,Dorset

The impact that “Romanization” and the development of urban centers had on the health of the Romano‐British population is little understood. A re‐examination of the skeletal remains of 364 nonadults from the civitas capital at Roman Dorchester (Durnovaria) in Dorset was carried out to measure the health of the children living in this small urban area. The cemetery population was divided into two groups; the first buried their dead organized within an east–west alignment with possible Christian‐style graves, and the second with more varied “pagan” graves, aligned north–south. A higher prevalence of malnutrition and trauma was evident in the children from Dorchester than in any other published Romano‐British group, with levels similar to those seen in postmedieval industrial communities. Cribra orbitalia was present in 38.5% of the children, with rickets and/or scurvy at 11.2%. Twelve children displayed fractures of the ribs, with 50% of cases associated with rickets and/or scurvy, suggesting that rib fractures should be considered during the diagnosis of these conditions. The high prevalence of anemia, rickets, and scurvy in the Poundbury children, and especially the infants, indicates that this community may have adopted child‐rearing practices that involved fasting the newborn, a poor quality weaning diet, and swaddling, leading to general malnutrition and inadequate exposure to sunlight. The Pagan group showed no evidence of scurvy or rib fractures, indicating difference in religious and child‐rearing practices but that both burial groups were equally susceptible to rickets and anemia suggests a shared poor standard of living in this urban environment. Am J Phys Anthropol, 2010. © 2009 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Factors influencing the etiology of cribra orbitalia in prehistoric Nubia

The present research represents an attempt to explain the occurrence of cribra orbitalia in Nubian skeletal remains associated with Meroitic, X-Group and Christian cultural horizons. The distribution of cribra orbitalia among 285 crania examined revealed a concentration of lesions among infants and aged individuals. While earlier studies have suggested cribra orbitalia may reflect the occurrence of abnormal hemoglobins such as sickle cell anemia or thalassemia, a consideration of the environmental context in which the lesions occurred makes an alternative hypothesis more likely. Particularly in Nubia (past and present), where parasitic infection is high, the diet is poor in iron, weanling diarrhea is frequent and multiparity is the norm, chronic iron deficiency anemia is a more likely causal factor. This interpretation is also compatable with clinical observations of cribra orbitalia among modern individuals suffering from chronic iron deficiency anemia.     

Social context and consumption of unfamiliar foods by capuchin monkeys (Cebus apella) over repeated encounters

Visalberghi and Fragaszy [Animal Behaviour 49:1089–1095, 1995] have shown that social influences affect acceptance of novel foods. However, little is known about the temporal course on which such influences act (e.g., for how long they persist and for how many encounters they are effective). To explore this issue, 11 adult tufted capuchins were observed during ten successive encounters with eight unfamiliar foods (phase 1, in which subjects were tested in social or individual condition) and ten more encounters 6 months later (phase 2, in which all subjects were tested in social condition). A total of 680 observational sessions were carried out. Results show that during the first five encounters in phase 1, capuchins ate more when they encountered these foods in the presence of their groupmates than if they encountered them alone. Thereafter, during the second five encounters of phase 1, foods were consumed equivalently whether presented to monkeys socially or individually. In phase 2, the foods were consumed equivalently regardless of the previous circumstance of their presentation (social or alone). In phase 2, consumption was similar to that scored in a previous study for familiar foods [Visalberghi & Fragaszy, Animal Behaviour 49:1089–1095, 1995]. We conclude that 1) foods remain unfamiliar to capuchins only for the first few encounters, 2) social facilitation of consumption of unfamiliar foods is of limited duration, and 3) individuals consumed equivalent amounts of an unfamiliar food when they repeatedly encountered it alone or in the presence of groupmates. These results caution those who interpret similar feeding habits in primate groups as evidence of social influences. Am. J. Primatol. 45:367–380, 1998. © 1998 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Scurvy in capybaras bred in captivity in Argentine

In order to determine if the absence of vitamin C in the diet of capybaras (Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris) causes scurvy, a group of seven young individuals were fed food pellets without ascorbic acid, while another group of eight individuals received the same food with 1 g of ascorbic acid per animal per day. Animals in the first group developed signs of scurvy-like gingivitis, breaking of the incisors and death of one animal. Clinical signs appeared between 25 and 104 days from the beginning of the trial in all individuals. Growth rates of individuals deprived of vitamin C was considerably less than those observed in the control group. Deficiency of ascorbic acid had a severe effect on reproduction of another population of captive capybaras. We found that the decrease in ascorbic acid content in the diet affected pregnancy, especially during the first stages. The results obtained suggest that it is necessary to supply a suitable quantity of vitamin C in the diet of this species in captivity.     

Corynosoma strumosum (Acanthocephala) infection in marine foraging mink (Neogale vison) and river otter (Lontra canadensis) and associated peritonitis in a juvenile mink

Corynosoma strumosum (Acanthocephala), a widespread parasite of pinnipeds, is reported in marine foraging North American mink (Neogale vison) and river otter (Lontra canadensis) on Vancouver Island, British Columbia. This is the first confirmed case of infection by C. strumosum in river otters on the west coast of North America and may be the first confirmed case of infection in wild North American mink; C. strumosum has previously been reported in river otters in Europe (Lutra lutra) and in farmed mink fed with marine fish. We also detected a case of acanthocephalan associated peritonitis in a juvenile mink. Furthermore, though infections with Corynosoma spp. are often assumed to be accidental in mustelids, some C. strumosum individuals found in mink showed signs of reproductive activity. These findings indicate that mink may be a competent definitive host and represent a reservoir in coastal habitats although further research is needed to confirm this. Investigating whether river otters may be competent hosts and determine the prevalence of infection in coastal populations would determine the potential implications of C. strumosum for coastal otters and minks. Our report indicates that mink and possibly river otter living in coastal areas are vulnerable to this previously unreported parasitic infection with mortality risk, at least in juvenile individuals.     

Scurvy in the Great Irish Famine: evidence of vitamin C deficiency from a mid-19th century skeletal population

Scurvy has increasingly been recognized in archaeological populations since the 1980s but this study represents the first examination of the paleopathological findings of scurvy in a known famine population. The Great Famine (1845-1852) was a watershed in Irish history and resulted in the death of one million people and the mass emigration of just as many. It was initiated by a blight which completely wiped out the potato-virtually the only source of food for the poor of Ireland. This led to mass starvation and a widespread occurrence of infectious and metabolic diseases. A recent discovery of 970 human skeletons from mass burials dating to the height of the famine in Kilkenny City (1847-1851) provided an opportunity to study the skeletal manifestations of scurvy-a disease that became widespread at this time due to the sudden lack of Vitamin C which had previously almost exclusively been provided by the potato. A three-scale diagnostic reliance approach has been employed as a statistical aid for diagnosing the disease in the population. A biocultural approach was adopted to enable the findings to be contextualized and the etiology and impact of the disease explored. The results indicate that scurvy indirectly influenced famine-induced mortality. A sex and stature bias is evident among adults in which males and taller individuals displayed statistically significantly higher levels of scorbutic lesions. The findings have also suggested that new bone formation at the foramen rotundum is a diagnostic criterion for the paleopathological identification of scurvy, particularly among juveniles.     

Metabolic engineering in food crops to enhance ascorbic acid production: crop biofortification perspectives for human health

Ascorbic acid (AsA) also known as vitamin C is considered as an essential micronutrient in the diet of humans. The human body is unable to synthesize AsA, thus solely dependent on exogenous sources to accomplish the nutritional requirement. AsA plays a crucial role in different physiological aspects of human health like bone formation, iron absorption, maintenance and development of connective tissues, conversion of cholesterol to bile acid and production of serotonin. It carries antioxidant properties and is involved in curing various clinical disorders such as scurvy, viral infection, neurodegenerative diseases, cardiovascular diseases, anemia, and diabetes. It also plays a significant role in COVID-19 prevention and recovery by improving the oxygen index and enhancing the production of natural killer cells and T-lymphocytes. In plants, AsA plays important role in floral induction, seed germination, senescence, ROS regulation and photosynthesis. AsA is an essential counterpart of the antioxidant system and helps to defend the plants against abiotic and biotic stresses. Surprisingly, the deficiencies of AsA are spreading in both developed and developing countries. The amount of AsA in the major food crops such as wheat, rice, maize, and other raw natural plant foods is inadequate to fulfill its dietary requirements. Hence, the biofortification of AsA in staple crops would be feasible and cost-effective means of delivering AsA to populations that may have limited access to diverse diets and other interventions. In this review, we endeavor to provide information on the role of AsA in plants and human health, and also perused various biotechnological and agronomical approaches for elevating AsA content in food crops.