Increased Carbohydrate Induced Ghrelin Secretion in Obese vs. Normal‐weight Adolescent Girls

Orexigenic and anorexigenic pathways mediate food intake and may be affected by meal composition. Our objective was to determine whether changes in levels of active ghrelin and peptide YY (PYY) differ in obese vs. normal‐weight adolescent girls following specific macronutrient intake and predict hunger and subsequent food intake. We enrolled 26 subjects: 13 obese and 13 normal‐weight girls, 12–18 years old, matched for maturity (as assessed by bone age) and race. Subjects were assigned a high‐carbohydrate, high‐protein, and high‐fat breakfast in random order. Active ghrelin and PYY were assessed for 4 h after breakfast and 1 h after intake of a standardized lunch. Hunger was assessed using a standardized visual analog scale (VAS). No suppression in active ghrelin levels was noted following macronutrient intake in obese or normal‐weight girls. Contrary to expectations, active ghrelin increased in obese girls following the high‐carbohydrate breakfast, and the percent increase was higher than in controls (P = 0.046). Subsequent food intake at lunch was also higher (P = 0.03). Following the high‐fat breakfast, but not other breakfasts, percent increase in PYY was lower (P = 0.01) and subsequent lunch intake higher (P = 0.005) in obese compared with normal‐weight girls. In obese adolescents, specific intake of high‐carbohydrate and high‐fat breakfasts is associated with greater increases in ghrelin, lesser increases in PYY, and higher intake at a subsequent meal than in controls. Changes in anorexigenic and orexigenic hormones in obese vs. normal‐weight adolescents following high‐carbohydrate and high‐fat meals may influence hunger and satiety signals and subsequent food intake.     

Serotoninergic Manipulation,Meal-Induced Satiety and Eating Pattern: Effect of Fluoxetine in Obese Female Subjects

Twelve nondepressed healthy female obese subjects (BMI > 30kg/m²) took part in a study which conformed to a double-blind randomized crossover design. Each subject acted as her own control across 2 weeks of treatment with either 60 mg of the 5-HT reuptake inhibitor fluoxetine or matching placebo. On days 7 and 14 of both treatment phases subjects were provided with fixed energy lunch meals high in either CHO or fat. The effect of these meals on satiety during the fluoxetine and placebo phases was assessed by a battery of procedures. Subjects felt less hungry after consuming the high CHO meal than after consuming the high-fat meal. They also felt less hungry when taking fluoxetine than when taking the placebo. Analysis of energy intake from the test meal revealed a main effect of prior lunch meal type (high CHO or high fat) and a main effect of drug treatment. Subjects consumed an average of 574 kcal following the high CHO meal compared to 689 kcal following the high-fat meal. Subjects also consumed an average of 532 kcal when taking fluoxetine compared to 730 kcal when taking the placebo. Fluoxetine did not exert any significant effects on macronutrient selection. Mean daily energy intake, calculated from food diary records, was 1881 kcal when subjects were taking the placebo compared to 1460 kcal when taking fluoxetine (a reduction of 22.4%). Fluoxetine treatment produced a significant weight loss of 1.97 kg over the two weeks of treatment compared to a weight loss of only 0.04 kg on placebo.     

Interaction between GLP-1 and CCK-33 in inhibiting food intake and appetite in men

Glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) and CCK-33 were intravenously infused alone or in combination into normal weight men for 60 min before they were served a lunch of ham sandwiches, chocolate mousse, and orange juice. Infusion of GLP-1 (dose: 0.9 pmol x kg(-1) x min(-1)) or CCK-33 (dose: 0.2 pmol x kg(-1) x min(-1)) each reduced calorie intake of the test meal. However, simultaneous infusion of these peptide doses reduced calorie intake less than the sum of the peptides' individual effects. Infusions of the same doses of GLP-1 plus CCK-33 had neither individual nor interactive effects on meal size or calorie consumption. The combination of GLP-1 plus CCK-33 induced, however, a significant reduction in hunger feelings in the premeal period (P = 0.036 vs. all other treatments). In summary, intravenous infusion of near physiological doses of CCK-33 and GLP-1 produced specific inhibitions of hunger feeling in men; the simultaneous infusion resulted in an infra-additive reduction in calorie consumption, rejecting thereby the hypothesis that the two peptides exert a positive synergistic effect on food intake compared with the effects observed with infusion of individual peptides. In conclusion, CCK and GLP-1 are meal-related satiety signals that are released from the gastrointestinal tract during food intake.     

Metformin Decreases Food Consumption and Induces Weight Loss in Subjects with Obesity with Type II Non-Insulin-Dependent Diabetes

Metformin often promotes weight loss in patients with obesity with non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (NIDDM). The mechanism may be attributed to decreased food intake. This study has tested the effect of metformin on satiety and its efficacy in inducing weight loss. Twelve diet-treated NIDDM women with obesity were randomly given two dose levels (850 mg or 1700 mg) of metformin or placebo at 0800 for three consecutive days followed by a meal test on the third day on three occasions using a 3times3 Latin square design. The number of sandwich canapes eaten in three consecutive 10-minute periods beginning at 1400 hours was used to quantitate food intake, and the level of subjective hunger was rated just before the sandwich meal with a linear analogue hunger rating scale at 1400 after a 6-hour fast. The prior administration of metformin produced a reduction in calorie intake after each of the two doses of metformin treatment. The 1700-mg metformin dose had the most marked appetite suppressant action. Similarly, hunger ratings were significantly lowered after metformin, and the effect was most pronounced after the administration of 1700 mg of metformin. To assess the efficacy of metformin in reducing bodyweight, 48 diet-treated NIDDM women with obesity who had failed to lose weight by diet therapy were first placed on a 1200-kcal ADA (American Diabetes Association) diet before being randomized to receive either metformin (850 mg) or placebo twice daily in a double-blind fashion for 24 weeks. A 4-week single-blind placebo lead-in period preceded and a 6-week single-blind placebo period followed the 24-week double-blind treatment period. Subjects treated with metformin continued to lose weight throughout 24 weeks of treatment; their mean maximum weight loss was 8 kg greater than that of the placebo group, with corresponding lower HbA1C and fasting blood glucose levels at the end of the active treatment period. These results indicate that metformin decreases calorie intake in a dose-dependent manner and leads to a reduction in bodyweight in NIDDM patients with obesity.     

Ceruletide acts in the abdomen, not in the brain, to produce satiety

Ceruletide (caerulein), a decapeptide extracted from the skin of the frog, Hyla caerulea, is very similar in structure to the C-terminal octapeptide of cholecystokinin (CCK-8). Although ceruletide and CCK-8 act through similar or identical receptors to produce the same visceral effects, previous studies in the rat suggested that peripherally administered ceruletide acted directly on the ventromedial hypothalamic (VMH) area to decrease food intake, but peripherally administered CCK-8 acted at a vagally innervated abdominal site to decrease food intake. Since it is unprecedented for these two peptides to produce the same effect by acting at different sites, we investigated the site of action of ceruletide's satiety effect in the rat and compared it to the site of action of CCK-8. The major results were: (1) intraperitoneal administration of ceruletide and CCK-8 inhibited food intake, but intraventricular administration did not; (2) the satiety effect of ceruletide and CCK-8 was not changed by bilateral lesions of the VMH; and (3) the satiety effect of ceruletide and CCK-8 was abolished or markedly reduced by bilateral abdominal vagotomy. We conclude that ceruletide acts at the same vagally innervated abdominal site to produce satiety as CCK-8 does and that neither peptide acts directly on the VMH area.     

Acute effect of alginate-based preload on satiety feelings, energy intake, and gastric emptying rate in healthy subjects

Viscous dietary fibers such as sodium alginate extracted from brown seaweed have received much attention lately for their potential role in energy regulation through the inhibition of energy intake and increase of satiety feelings. The aim of our study was to investigate the effect on postprandial satiety feelings, energy intake, and gastric emptying rate (GER), by the paracetamol method, of two different volumes of an alginate-based preload in normal-weight subjects. In a four-way placebo-controlled, double-blind, crossover trial, 20 subjects (age: 25.9 ± 3.4 years; BMI: 23.5 ± 1.7 kg/m(2)) were randomly assigned to receive a 3% preload concentration of either low volume (LV; 9.9 g alginate in 330 ml) or high volume (HV; 15.0 g alginate in 500 ml) alginate-based beverage, or an iso-volume placebo beverage. The preloads were ingested 30 min before a fixed breakfast and again before an ad libitum lunch. Consumption of LV-alginate preload induced a significantly lower (8.0%) energy intake than the placebo beverage (P = 0.040) at the following lunch meal, without differences in satiety feelings or paracetamol concentrations. The HV alginate significantly increased satiety feelings (P = 0.038), reduced hunger (P = 0.042) and the feeling of prospective food consumption (P = 0.027), and reduced area under the curve (iAUC) paracetamol concentrations compared to the placebo (P = 0.05). However, only a 5.5% reduction in energy intake was observed for HV alginate (P = 0.20). Although they are somewhat contradictory, our results suggest that alginate consumption does affect satiety feelings and energy intake. However, further investigation on the volume of alginate administered is needed before inferring that this fiber has a possible role in short-term energy regulation.     

Ghrelin levels increase after pictures showing food

The neuropeptide ghrelin is a major signal for food intake in various species including humans. After exogenous ghrelin administration, food intake and body weight increase in rodents. In normal human subjects, ghrelin administration increases self-rated appetite and calorie intake and prompts the imagination of favorite meals. It is unclear so far whether ghrelin levels are affected by external cues such as sight of food. We investigated the influence of pictures showing food compared to neutral pictures on ghrelin levels in young normal male subjects (n = 8). The study consisted of two consecutive sessions with a one-week interval. During each session, blood for later analysis of plasma concentrations of ghrelin was collected between 08:15 and 13:00 every 15 min (between 10:30 and 11:30 every 10 min). Breakfast and lunch was provided at 08:30 and 12:00, respectively. Fifty pictures were presented from 10:30 to 10:45 showing neutral images during the first session and food contents during the second session. As expected, ghrelin levels increased before each meal independent of the picture contents. In addition, ghrelin levels during the 30-min interval following the presentation of pictures with food increased significantly compared to the 30-min interval before this presentation (area under the curve (AUC): 188 % vs. 158 %, P < 0.05). The difference in the increases between the two picture conditions was also significant (P < 0.05). Our findings suggest that sight of food elevates ghrelin levels in healthy volunteers.     

Ceruletide decreases food intake in non-obese man

Cholecystokinin decreases food intake in animals and in man. This study investigated whether the structurally related ceruletide reduces food intake in healthy non-obese man. Twelve females and 12 males participated, after an over-night fast, in each of two experiments. During the basal 40 min, saline was infused IV. Thereafter, the infusion was, in random double blind fashion, either continued with saline or switched to 60 or 120 ng/kg b. wt/hr ceruletide. Butter was melted in a pan and scrambled eggs with ham were prepared in front of the subjects, who were instructed to eat, together with bread and mallow tea, as much as they wanted. With 120 ng/kg/hr ceruletide, the subjects ate significantly less (16.8 percent) than with saline (3725 kJ±489 SEM and 4340 kJ±536, respectively; p<0.025). They also reported less hunger (p<0.005) and activation (p<0.01), and had longer reaction times (p<0.01) and a weaker psychomotor performance (p<0.025). 60 ng/kg/hr ceruletide decreased food intake only slightly (6.6%; 3089 kJ±253 and 3292 kJ±300 respectively) and no significant changes in the above measures occurred. In conclusion, ceruletide reduces food intake in man, thus resembling the effects of cholecystokinin.     

Ghrelin response to protein and carbohydrate meals in relation to food intake and glycerol levels in obese subjects

Obese subjects have lower basal and an attenuated decrease of postprandial plasma ghrelin following carbohydrate-rich meals, while the response to protein is unknown. Therefore, plasma ghrelin levels were examined after ingestion of satiating amounts of a protein- or carbohydrate-rich meal in relation to food and energy intake and hunger/satiety ratings in 30 obese subjects followed 240 min later by ad lib sandwiches. Food intake and hunger/satiety ratings were identical while energy intake was significantly greater after bread (861 +/- 62.7 vs. 441 +/- 50.4 kcal, p < 0.001). Second meal food and energy intake were not different. Ghrelin decreased after bread, but increased by 50 pg/ml (p < 0.001) after meat. The corresponding increase of insulin was 55 vs. 9 microU/ml (p < 0.001). Glycerol levels decreased significantly less after the protein meal compared to carbohydrates. After protein glycerol was significantly correlated to the rise of ghrelin but not insulin. These data demonstrate that, in obese subjects, protein has no different satiating effect than carbohydrate despite divergent ghrelin levels. Energy intake corresponds to energy density of the respective food items. Ghrelin response to both meals is qualitatively similar but quantitatively attenuated compared to normal weight subjects. The relationship between ghrelin and glycerol would support recent observations of a possible role of ghrelin in fat metabolism.     

The individual and combined effects of glycemic index and protein on glycemic response, hunger, and energy intake

Although high protein and low glycemic index (GI) foods are thought to promote satiety, little is known about the effects of GI, protein, and their interaction on hunger and energy intake several hours following a mixed meal. This study investigated the long term effects of GI, protein, and their combined effects on glucose, insulin, hunger, and energy intake in healthy, sedentary, overweight, and obese adults (BMI of 30.9 ± 3.7 kg/m²). Sixteen individuals participated separately in four testing sessions after an overnight fast. The majority (75%) were non‐Hispanic Blacks. Each consumed one of four breakfast meals (high GI/low protein, high GI/high protein, low GI/low protein, low GI/high protein) in random order. Visual analog scales (VAS) and blood samples were taken at baseline, 15 min, and at 30 min intervals over 4 h following the meal. After 4 h, participants were given the opportunity to consume food ad libitum from a buffet style lunch. Meals containing low GI foods produced a smaller glucose (P < 0.002) and insulin (P = 0.0001) response than meals containing high GI foods. No main effects for protein or interactions between GI and protein were observed in glucose or insulin responses, respectively. The four meals had no differential effect on observed energy intake or self‐reported hunger, satiety, and prospective energy intake. Low GI meals produced the smallest postprandial increases in glucose and insulin. There were no effects for GI, protein, or their interaction on appetite or energy intake 4 h after breakfast.     

Low-dose ghrelin infusion--evidence against a hormonal role in food intake

Ghrelin is the only peripheral orexigenic peptide of gastrointestinal origin. Its preprandial increase is supposed to initiate food intake. This assumption is based on studies with intravenously infused ghrelin in rather high doses and the correlation between ghrelin levels and hunger sensations. As yet it is unclear whether or not low dose ghrelin resulting in physiological and moderately supraphysiological plasma levels has an effect on hunger sensations, the wish for food intake and / or the quantity of the meal consumed. We examined 20 normal-weight males (age 25±1.7 years, BMI 24±0.5 kg/m(2)) in a prospective double-blind randomized fashion. On two different days they obtained a ghrelin infusion 1 ng/kg/min or intravenous saline starting one hour after a standardized meal. Hunger and satiety ratings were documented by visual analogue scales. A second meal was served on demand and consumed until feeling satiated. Time point of the second meal as well as ingested calories were registered. Prior to the start of i.v. ghrelin the postprandial decrease of active plasma ghrelin by 30 pg/ml was comparable. In the controls the postprandial reduction was significant until 210 min compared to basal. With i.v. ghrelin basal levels were reached within 10 min. The maximal rise was twice basal. No effect was observed on hunger and satiety ratings. The time period between the meals and the food quantity of the second meal were similar. During ghrelin infusion glucose and growth hormone but not insulin and cortisol levels were significantly higher after the second meal compared to saline. The present data demonstrate for the first time the effect of a low dose ghrelin infusion on food intake. Neither physiological nor moderably supraphysiological ghrelin levels were associated with any change of the various food intake parameters determined. These data do not favour a hormonal role of peripheral ghrelin in the regulation of food intake.     

Episodic Memory and Appetite Regulation in Humans

Psychological and neurobiological evidence implicates hippocampal-dependent memory processes in the control of hunger and food intake. In humans, these have been revealed in the hyperphagia that is associated with amnesia. However, it remains unclear whether ‘memory for recent eating’ plays a significant role in neurologically intact humans. In this study we isolated the extent to which memory for a recently consumed meal influences hunger and fullness over a three-hour period. Before lunch, half of our volunteers were shown 300 ml of soup and half were shown 500 ml. Orthogonal to this, half consumed 300 ml and half consumed 500 ml. This process yielded four separate groups (25 volunteers in each). Independent manipulation of the ‘actual’ and ‘perceived’ soup portion was achieved using a computer-controlled peristaltic pump. This was designed to either refill or draw soup from a soup bowl in a covert manner. Immediately after lunch, self-reported hunger was influenced by the actual and not the perceived amount of soup consumed. However, two and three hours after meal termination this pattern was reversed - hunger was predicted by the perceived amount and not the actual amount. Participants who thought they had consumed the larger 500-ml portion reported significantly less hunger. This was also associated with an increase in the ‘expected satiation’ of the soup 24-hours later. For the first time, this manipulation exposes the independent and important contribution of memory processes to satiety. Opportunities exist to capitalise on this finding to reduce energy intake in humans.     

Cholecystokinin octapeptide decreases intake of solid food in man

Cholecystokinin octapeptide (CCK-OP) was reported to decrease the intake of liquid food in lean and in obese man. This study investigated the effect of CCK-OP on the consumption of real life food, i.e., of standardized sandwiches. Sixteen young non-obese females and males participated, after an overnight fast, each in two experiments. After a basal 30 min, saline or CCK-OP, 1.5 or 3.0 Ivy Dog Units/kg body weight/15 min, was infused in random double blind fashion, while sandwiches were placed in front of the subjects. For the next three 15-min periods, the subjects were instructed to eat as much as they liked. In the first 15 min after 3.0 as well as 1.5 U CCK-OP/kg/15 min significantly fewer sandwiches (50 and 17 percent) were eaten than after saline (p less than 0.01 and p less than 0.05) and less hunger was reported (p less than 0.02 and p less than 0.05). Self-reported activation decreased only with 3.0 U CCK-OP (p less than 0.005). Reports of well-bring , electroencephalogram, heart rate, and respiration were not altered. The results support the notion that CCK is involved in the regulation of food intake.     

Original Articles Sibutramine Reduces Food Intake in Non-Dieting Women with Obesity

Sibutramine (SIB), an inhibitor of serotonin and noradrenaline reuptake, has been shown in clinical trials to be associated with a dose-related decrease in bodyweight. This double-blind, placebo-controlled, Latin square crossover study examined whether the effect on bodyweight could be due in part to a reduction in daily food intake. Twelve non-dieting, women with obesity (body mass index of 30.5 to 41.9) received three treatments (0 [matching placebo], 10, or 30 mg SIB/day) for 14 days, with 14-day washout periods in between. On days 7 and 14, participants came to the laboratory to eat breakfast, lunch, and dinner so that daily energy and macronutrient intakes and ratings of hunger and satiety could be measured. Significant reductions occurred in food intake (both grams and energy) over the 14-day study period. On day 7, SIB 30 reduced intake significantly by 1762 kJ (23% reduction from placebo), and on day 14, both SIB 10 and SIB 30 significantly reduced intake compared with placebo (SIB 10, 19% reduction [1490 kJ]; SIB 30,26% reduction [2079 HI). On day 7, the percentage of energy consumed from carbohydrate increased significantly with the 30-mg dose (56.7 %) compared with that of placebo (51.4%), with a reciprocal decrease in energy from fat (27.8% to 24%). The results show that SIB reduced energy intake in women with obesity who were not attempting to lose weight.     

Interaction between CCK and a preload on reduction of food intake is mediated by CCK-A receptors in humans

Cholecystokinin (CCK) interacts with neural signals to induce satiety in several species, but the mechanisms are unclear. We therefore tested the hypothesis that alimentary CCK (CCK-A) receptors mediate the interaction of CCK with an appetizer on food intake in humans. CCK octapeptide (CCK-8, 0.75 microgram infused over 10 min) or saline (placebo) with concomitant infusions of saline (placebo) or loxiglumide, a specific CCK-A antagonist, was infused into 16 healthy men with use of a double-blind, four-period design. All subjects received a standard 400-ml appetizer (amounting to 154 kcal) but were free to eat and drink thereafter as much as they wished. The effect of these infusions on feelings of hunger and satiety and on food intake was quantified. CCK-8 induced a reduction in calorie intake (P < 0.05) compared with saline. Furthermore, a decrease in hunger feelings (P < 0.05, saline-CCK-8 vs. all other treatments) and an increase in fullness were observed. These effects were antagonized for hunger and fullness by loxiglumide. We conclude that CCK-8 interacts with an appetizer to modulate satiety in humans. These effects are mediated by CCK-A receptors.     

Plasma ghrelin levels during exercise - effects of intensity and duration

Ghrelin, a recently discovered hormone of gastric origin has been shown to stimulate appetite and food intake. In man it is considered to play a role in energy homeostasis and regulation of somatropic function. As exercise affects hunger/satiety sensations and food intake, at least under some experimental conditions, we investigated the effect of exercise intensity and duration on ghrelin release and subsequent ad libitum food intake in normal weight subjects. Bicycle exercise on an ergometer for 30 min at 50 W which was below the aerob-anaerobic threshold led to an increase of ghrelin which remained unchanged during the higher intensity at 100 W. Respective hunger/satiety ratings and subsequent food intake and postprandial ghrelin suppression were identical and not different from controls. In a second group 7 subjects cycled at 50 W for 30, 60 and 120 min, respectively. Ghrelin concentrations rose significantly by 50-70 pg/ml above baseline for the respective period of exercise. While postexercise premeal ghrelin levels were not significantly different subsequent food intake after 120 min of cycling was significantly greater compared to control, 30 min and 60 min exercise, respectively. The present data suggest that low rather than high-intensity exercise stimulates ghrelin levels independent of exercise duration. Stimulation of food intake during prolonged exercise is most likely not due to changes of ghrelin.     

Possible entrainment of ghrelin to habitual meal patterns in humans

Ghrelin is reportedly a meal-initiation signal based on observations that concentrations increase before meals coincident with rising hunger. However, evidence that ghrelin peaks vary with feeding schedules suggests that it rises in anticipation of an expected meal, rather than eliciting feeding. To explore the entrainment of ghrelin profiles, this study investigated the association between varying habitual meal patterns and plasma ghrelin concentrations. Lean and obese adults following either a short intermeal interval (SII) pattern, with 2.5-3.5 h between their habitual breakfast and lunch times, or a long intermeal interval (LII) pattern, with 5.5-6.5 h between these eating occasions, participated. Food intake and appetite were recorded for 2 baseline days. On the subsequent test day, blood samples were collected over 8 h while participants ate a breakfast and lunch matched to their customary meals and pattern. Appetite ratings were obtained and ghrelin, insulin, glucose, and leptin concentrations were measured. Peak ghrelin concentrations differed significantly by group and occurred prior to each group's respective lunch time. Ghrelin concentrations directly correlated with subjective hunger. This association was stronger when hunger preceded ghrelin, a pattern inconsistent with ghrelin causing the hunger rise. Ghrelin concentrations were inversely correlated with insulin, and peak insulin concentrations preceded nadir ghrelin concentrations postprandially. Ghrelin concentrations periprandially, and over the entire test session, did not differ by meal group, likely because of similar intakes between groups. These data demonstrate that the timing of ghrelin peaks is related to habitual meal patterns and may rise in anticipation of eating rather than eliciting feeding.     

Low-dose pramlintide reduced food intake and meal duration in healthy, normal-weight subjects

Objective: We previously reported that a single preprandial injection (120 μg) of pramlintide, an analog of the β‐cell hormone amylin, reduced ad libitum food intake in obese subjects. To further characterize the meal‐related effects of amylin signaling in humans, we studied a lower pramlintide dose (30 μg) in normal‐weight subjects. Research Methods and Procedures: In a randomized, double‐blind, placebo‐controlled, cross‐over study, 15 healthy men (age, 24 ± 7 years; BMI, 22.2 ± 1.8 kg/m²) underwent a standardized buffet meal test on two occasions. After an overnight fast, subjects received a single subcutaneous injection of pramlintide (30 μg) or placebo, followed immediately by a standardized pre‐load meal. After 1 hour, subjects were offered an ad libitum buffet meal, and total caloric intake and meal duration were measured. Results: Compared with placebo, pramlintide reduced total caloric intake (1411 ± 94 vs. 1190 ± 117 kcal; Δ, ?221 ± 101 kcal; ?14 ± 9%; p = 0.05) and meal duration (36 ± 2 vs. 31 ± 3 minutes; Δ, ?5.1 ± 1.4 minutes; p < 0.005). Visual analog scale profiles of hunger trended lower and fullness higher during the first hour after pramlintide administration. In response to the buffet, hunger and fullness changed to a similar degree after pramlintide and placebo, despite subjects on pramlintide consuming 14% fewer kilocalories. Visual analog scale nausea ratings remained near baseline, without differences between treatments. Plasma peptide YY, cholecystokinin, and ghrelin concentrations did not differ with treatment, whereas glucagon‐like peptide‐1 concentrations after meals were lower in response to pramlintide than to placebo. Discussion: These observations add support to the concept that amylin agonism may have a role in human appetite control.     

Changes in food intake and growth rate in mice under hypergravity.

Mice exposed to hypergravity, especially soon after start of exposure, diminished the body weight and the food intake. The amount of food intake was kept less than that of the ground control during hypergravity breeding for 2 weeks. Furthermore, the weight of testis relative to the body weight increased compared to that of 1 G control although the relative weights of liver and kidney were not changed. The purpose of this study was whether the low growth rate of the body weight and the increase of the relative testis weight were induced by the decrease of the food intake under hypergravity. We divided 3 weeks old male mice to 3 groups; the 1 G (ground control), the food restricted (FR) under 1 G, and the 3 G group. The 3 G group bred for 2 weeks under the centrifuge at 3 G. The FR group was given the same amount of food as the group ate. The changes in the body weight and the relative weights of testis, spleen and seminal vesicle of the FR group were similar to those of the 3 G group. The hunger test revealed that only the FR group was hunger. Our results suggested that the decrease of the food intake both in response to hypergravity and the food restriction induced the decrease of the body weight but the increase of the relative testis weight.