Life cycle assessment of California processing tomato: an evaluation of the effects of evolving practices and technologies over a 10-year (2005–2015) timeframe

Purpose

California is the largest US producer of processing tomatoes, generating 96% of all domestic production and nearly 30% of global supply. Processing tomatoes are mostly processed into diced and paste products. Consumers and actors along their supply chains are increasingly interested in understanding their environmental burdens and identifying opportunities for improvements. This study applies life cycle assessment (LCA) to California diced and paste products over a 10-year timeframe to characterize current impacts and historical trends.

Methods

The LCA considers a scope from cradle-to-processing facility gate and accords with relevant Product Category Rules as published by the International EPD® System. Extensive primary data were collected for tomato cultivation for the years 2005 and 2015, and from processing facilities for 2005, 2010, and 2015 to understand the effects of evolving practices and technologies. We estimate crop and regional specific nitrous oxide and nitrate leaching emissions using a biogeochemical model, and the USES-LCA model is used to determine potential impacts from pesticide application. A suite of impact assessment categories is included based on the CML method (only global warming potential and freshwater consumption values are in the abstract).

Results and discussion

The 2015 results of the study indicate that diced tomatoes are responsible for 0.16 kg CO₂e and 71 L of freshwater per kg, and paste is responsible for 0.83 kg CO₂e and 328 L of freshwater per kg. The main opportunities for improvement include natural gas use in the greenhouse phase, energy for irrigation pumping and fertilizer type in the cultivation phase, and natural gas and electricity use in the facility processing phase. These hotspots are consistent with studies of processing tomato in other parts of the world. Evaluating trends over time showed that technological improvements in the industry had reduced life cycle impacts; for example, global warming potential decreased by 12% for paste and 26% for diced products between 2005 and 2015.

Conclusions

Trends over time show increasing efficiency at the cultivation and processing facility stages that have led to reductions in all impact categories evaluated. However, additional opportunities exist beyond efficiency improvements. Fertilizer and pesticide choice are potential opportunities for further reducing impacts. Also, the introduction of renewables in each phase of the supply chain (solar-powered irrigation pumps and onsite solar energy generation for facilities) could reduce the overall supply chain GWP₁₀₀ impacts by 9–10%.

     

九段沙湿地鸻形目鸟类迁徙季节环境容纳量

根据对九段沙湿地2005年春、秋季食物资源调查来计算迁徙期鸻形目鸟类的环境容纳量。结果表明,九段沙湿地春季食物总量为4541．20kgAFDW（去灰分干重）,秋季为2279．64kgAFDW,按鸻形目鸟类有效栖息生境计算,春季鸟类可利用食物资源量为3429．03kgAFDW,秋季为1700．92kgAFDW。通过鸟类体型类群分类（根据去脂净重、基础代谢率和体长）和能量消耗模型可以得出,九段沙湿地迁徙季节总食物量理论上可维持的鸻形目鸟类最大数量约为春季350万只,秋季175万只。按有效生境计算,春季约为260万只,秋季约为130万只。考虑到食物取入率的影响,九段沙湿地实际可容纳约13～26万只鸟类。根据地理信息分析可知,高潮位期有效栖息地的缺乏可能是限制鸟类数量达到估计上限的主要原因,建议在不危害保护区生态安全的前提下,开辟一些隐蔽性强的裸地和浅水塘,以提高鸻形目鸟类对九段沙湿地资源的利用率。     

Unraveling the Nexus: Exploring the Pathways to Combined Resource Use

In response to the unprecedented decline in global natural resource endowments, the so‐called nexus framework is gaining increasing influence on resource management practices. In this research, we approach the resource nexus through the concept of nexus pathways. Nexus pathways are configurations that resource flows follow along supply chains leading to the combined use of two or more resources. Three general types of pathways are identified: direct (on‐site use), dependent (one‐way supply chains), and interdependent (supply‐chain feedbacks). We quantify and compare each pathway by means of multiregional input‐output analysis and structural path analysis, and apply this approach to a comparative case study on the water‐energy nexus (WEN) in the United States and China. Interdependencies or feedbacks are generally thought to be relevant for the WEN, especially between water and energy sectors. Our economy‐wide analysis for both countries indicates, however, that feedbacks neither play an important role in the WEN nor substantially take place between water and energy sectors. The most important feedbacks contribute to less than 1% of total resource use, and these take place mostly between manufacturing sectors. Overall, the studied WEN is mostly driven by dependent pathways and, to a lesser degree, direct resource use. Comparative differences between the two countries are largely explained by differences in economic structure, technology, and resource endowments. Our findings call into question current research and policy focus and suggest greater attention to less complex, but more determining, pathways leading to absolute resource use.     

Carrying capacity for shorebirds during migratory seasons at the Jiuduansha Wetland, Yangtze River Estuary, China

The carrying capacity of food resources for migrating shorebirds was estimated at a stopover site in the Yangtze River Estuary during the two migratory sea-sons (spring and autumn). From March to May and September to November 2005, the macrobenthos resources of the Jiuduansha Wetland were investigated, and most of the macrobenthos species in the newly-formed shoal were found to be appropriate food for shorebirds. Biomass measurements showed that the total food resource was about 4541.20 kg AFDW (Ash-Free Dry Weight) in spring and about 2279.64 kg AFDW in autumn. Calculations were also done in the available habi-tats (intertidal bare mudflat and Scirpus x mariqueter/ Scirpus triqueter zones) for the shorebirds. The food resources in the available areas were about 3429.03 kg AFDW in spring and about 1700.92 kg AFDW in autumn. Based on the classification (by lean weight, basic metabolic rate and body length) of the shorebird community, and using the energy depletion model, it was theorized that all of the food resources in the Jiuduansha Wetland could support about 3.5 million shorebirds during spring season and 1.75 million shorebirds during autumn season. The shorebird carrying capacities in terms of the available food were about 2.6 million and 1.3 million birds during the two respective migration seasons. Considering the effect of intake rate, the potential carrying capacity was about 0.13-0.26 million shorebirds in the study area. The main factor restricting use of the area by shorebirds was the scarcity of available habitats for roosting at high tide rather than availability of food supply. We recommend restoring some wading pools in the dense Phragmites australis and Spartina alterniflora zones for shorebirds to roost in, to improve shorebirds' utilization efficiency of the resources in the Jiuduansha Wetland.     

The metabolism of U.S. cities 2.0

In the fifty years since Abel Wolman first published an estimate of U.S. urban metabolism, the field of urban metabolism has begun to thrive, with cities outside the United States being much of the focus. As cities attempt to meet local and international sustainability goals, it is time to revisit the metabolism of cities within the United States. Using existing empirical databases for material flows (the Freight Analysis Framework) and a published database on urban water flux, we provide a revised estimate of urban metabolism for the typical U.S. city. We estimate median values of metabolism for a city of one million people, considering water resources, food, fuel, and construction materials. Food consumption and waste production increased substantially to 3,800 metric tons per day and 4,900 metric tons per day, respectively. To facilitate a second generation of urban metabolism, we extend traditional analyses to include the embedded energy required to facilitate material consumption with important implications in determining sustainable urban metabolism. We estimate that a city of one million people requires nearly 4,000 gigajoules of primary energy per day to facilitate its metabolism. Our results show high heterogeneity of urban metabolism across the United States. As a result of the study, we conclude that there is a distinct need to promote policies at the regional or city scale that collect data for urban metabolism studies. Urban metabolism is an important educational and decision‐making tool that, with an increase in data availability, can provide important information for cities and their sustainability goals.     

营养膜无土栽培技术的研究

试验研究着重于设备、肥料和配方,产量效益、经济成本等。采用控制和调节pH值、电导度、氧气和设备等措施,使黄瓜亩产量达6861.5公斤;番茄因品种不同而有差异,早丰番茄品种达8361.1公斤。番茄每公斤成本0.29元。植物群体高大,根系发达,结果早,个体大,质量好。证明该技术操作容易,管理简单,产量高,有明显的经济效益。     

外源硫化氢和水杨酸对盐胁迫下加工番茄幼苗生长与生理特性的影响

以加工番茄KT-7为材料,在水培条件下,研究外源水杨酸(SA,0.15 mmol/L)、硫化氢(H2S)供体硫氢化钠(NaHS,50 mmol/L)对150 mmol/L NaCl胁迫下加工番茄幼苗的渗透调节、活性氧代谢和快速叶绿素荧光的影响,以探讨H2S和SA这2种信号分子协同作用、以及实际生产中缓解加工番茄幼苗盐胁...     

加工番茄种质资源的SSR分析

为探明加工番茄种质资源间的亲缘关系,利用SSR标记对20份加工番茄品种及育种材料进行了多样性分析。结果表明:从49对SSR引物中筛选出12对扩增稳定、条带清晰且多态性丰富的引物进行分析,共获得43个位点,多态性位点为37个,多态位点比率86%;供试材料间的遗传相似系数介于0.419~1.000之间,说明加工番茄种质资源间存在一定的遗传差异;通过UPGMA法聚类分析,将20份材料分为3大类群,其中亲缘关系较远的不同类群间及亚类间的种质资源可作为杂交育种的亲本。     

Economic and environmental assessment of automotive plastic waste end-of-life options: Energy recovery versus chemical recycling

Most automotive plastic waste (APW) is landfilled or used in energy recovery as it is unsuitable for high-quality product mechanical recycling. Chemical recycling via pyrolysis offers a pathway toward closing the material loop by handling this heterogeneous waste and providing feedstock for producing virgin plastics. This study compares chemical recycling and energy recovery scenarios for APW regarding climate change impact and cumulative energy demand (CED), assessing potential environmental advantages. In addition, an economic assessment is conducted. In contrast to other studies, the assessments are based on pyrolysis experiments conducted with an actual waste fraction. Mass balances and product composition are reported. The experimental data is combined with literature data for up- and downstream processes for the assessment. Chemical recycling shows a lower net climate change impact (0.57 to 0.64 kg CO₂e/kg waste input) and CED (3.38 to 4.41 MJ/kg waste input) than energy recovery (climate change impact: 1.17 to 1.25 kg CO₂e/kg waste input; CED: 6.94 to 7.97 MJ/kg waste input), while energy recovery performs better economically (net processing cost of −0.05 to −0.02€/kg waste input) compared to chemical recycling (0.05 to 0.08€/kg waste input). However, chemical recycling keeps carbon in the material cycle contributing to a circular economy and reducing the dependence on fossil feedstocks. Therefore, an increasing circularity of APW through chemical recycling shows a conflict between economic and environmental objectives.     

Environmental and economic impacts of solar‐powered integrated greenhouses

Greenhouse vegetable production plays a vital role in providing year‐round fresh vegetables to global markets, achieving higher yields, and using less water than open‐field systems, but at the expense of increased energy demand. This study examines the life cycle environmental and economic impacts of integrating semitransparent organic photovoltaics (OPVs) into greenhouse designs. We employ life cycle assessment to analyze six environmental impacts associated with producing greenhouse‐grown tomatoes in a Solar PoweRed INtegrated Greenhouse (SPRING) compared to conventional greenhouses with and without an adjacent solar photovoltaic array, across three distinct locations. The SPRING design produces significant reductions in environmental impacts, particularly in regions with high solar insolation and electricity‐intensive energy demands. For example, in Arizona, global warming potential values for a conventional, adjacent PV and SPRING greenhouse are found to be 3.71, 2.38, and 2.36 kg CO₂ eq/kg tomato, respectively. Compared to a conventional greenhouse, the SPRING design may increase life cycle environmental burdens in colder regions because the shading effect of OPV increases heating demands. Our analysis shows that SPRING designs must maintain crop yields at levels similar to conventional greenhouses in order to be economically competitive. Assuming consistent crop yields, uncertainty analysis shows average net present cost of production across Arizona to be $3.43, $3.38, and $3.64 per kg of tomato for the conventional, adjacent PV and SPRING system, respectively.     

The impacts of Japanese food losses and food waste on global natural resources and greenhouse gas emissions

Japan depends heavily on imports for its food supply. Since 2000, the food self‐sufficiency ratio has remained approximately 40% on a caloric basis. Japanese food wastage (i.e., food losses and food waste) is estimated to have been 6.42 million tonnes (50 kg per capita of wastage) in 2012. These values indicate that food wastage leads to wasted natural resources and excessive greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions both in Japan and in countries that export to Japan. This study estimates Japanese food wastage by food item to evaluate impacts on land and water resources and global GHG emissions during the processing, distribution, and consumption phases of the food supply chain while also considering the feed crops needed for livestock production. Despite uncertainties due to data limitations, in 2012, 1.23 million hectares of harvested land were used to produce food that was eventually wasted, and 413 million m³ of water resources were wasted due to Japanese food wastage in agricultural production. Furthermore, unnecessary GHG emissions were 3.51 million tonnes of CO₂ eq. in agricultural production and 0.49 million tonnes of CO₂ eq. in international transportation. The outcomes of the present study can be used to develop countermeasures to food wastage in industrializing Asian countries where food imports are projected to increase and food wastage issues in the consumption stage are expected to become as serious as they currently are in Japan.     

Carrying capacity for shorebirds during migratory seasons at the Jiuduansha Wetland, Yangtze River Estuary, China

The carrying capacity of food resources for migrating shorebirds was estimated at a stopover site in the Yangtze River Estuary during the two migratory seasons (spring and autumn). From March to May and September to November 2005, the macrobenthos resources of the Jiuduansha Wetland were investigated, and most of the macrobenthos species in the newly-formed shoal were found to be appropriate food for shorebirds. Biomass measurements showed that the total food resource was about 4541.20 kg AFDW (Ash-Free Dry Weight) in spring and about 2279.64 kg AFDW in autumn. Calculations were also done in the available habitats (intertidal bare mudflat and Scirpus × mariqueter/Scirpus triqueter zones) for the shorebirds. The food resources in the available areas were about 3429.03 kg AFDW in spring and about 1700.92 kg AFDW in autumn. Based on the classification (by lean weight, basic metabolic rate and body length) of the shorebird community, and using the energy depletion model, it was theorized that all of the food resources in the Jiuduansha Wetland could support about 3.5 million shorebirds during spring season and 1.75 million shorebirds during autumn season. The shorebird carrying capacities in terms of the available food were about 2.6 million and 1.3 million birds during the two respective migration seasons. Considering the effect of intake rate, the potential carrying capacity was about 0.13–0.26 million shorebirds in the study area. The main factor restricting use of the area by shorebirds was the scarcity of available habitats for roosting at high tide rather than availability of food supply. We recommend restoring some wading pools in the dense Phragmites australis and Spartina alterniflora zones for shorebirds to roost in, to improve shorebirds’ utilization efficiency of the resources in the Jiuduansha Wetland. __________ Translated from Acta Ecologica Sinica, 2007, 27 (1): 90–96 [译自:生态学报]     

A quantitative study of spermatogenesis in the developing rat testis

Quantitative (stereological) studies were performed to determine the number of germ cells in the developing rat testis. Sprague-Dawley rats aged 1-70 days were fixed by immersion or perfusion and embedded in Epon Araldite. Blocks of tissue were sectioned at 1.5 microns and stained with toluidine blue dye. Sections were systematically scanned and the areal density of nuclear profiles counted using an unbiased counting frame. Numerical density and absolute number of germ cells in the processed block were then estimated. Corrections for processing shrinkage were determined by comparing the volume of processed and unprocessed samples. The results demonstrate the necessity of determining absolute number rather than volume density (or areal density) in comparing germ cell numbers. In these experiments, spermatogonial numbers stabilized in the range 18.4-23.6 million per testis on Day 30. The number of primary spermatocytes that were first apparent on Day 15 increased rapidly to 54.6 million per testis on Day 30 and then slowly to 73.6 million on Day 70. Round spermatids were first apparent on Day 25 and increased rapidly to 85.7 million per testis on Day 40, then continued to increase to 151.9 million on Day 70. The study provides both methods and baseline data for future experiments involving manipulation of the spermatogenic potential of the testis.     

Consumptive use and daily evapotranspiration of corn under different levels of nitrogen and moisture regimes

Summary The seasonal consumptive use, Et per day and water use efficiency (kg grain/ha-cm) of corn were determined on a sandyloam soil during winter (rain-free) season. The difference in consumptive use was less among nitrogen levels, but marked between different moisture regimes. Et per day was less in the initial stages of the growing season, attained a peak at 80% of the crop growing season, and declined later on towards maturity. Water use efficiency was found to increase with increase in N level up to 180 kg N/ha. Among the moisture regimes, higher water use efficiency was recorded under 20% ASMD.     

Industrial Symbiosis in the Australian Minerals Industry: The Cases of Kwinana and Gladstone

The realization of regional synergies in industrial areas with intensive minerals processing provides a significant avenue toward sustainable resource processing. This article provides an overview of past and current synergy developments in two of Australia's major heavy industrial regions, Kwinana (Western Australia) and Gladstone (Queensland), and includes a comparative review and assessment of the drivers, barriers, and trigger events for regional synergies initiatives in both areas. Kwinana and Gladstone compare favorably with well‐known international examples in terms of the current level and maturity of industry involvement and collaboration and the commitment to further explore regional resource synergies. Kwinana stands out with regard to the number, diversity, complexity, and maturity of existing synergies. Gladstone is remarkable with regard to unusually large geographic boundaries and high dominance of one industry sector. Many diverse regional synergy opportunities still appear to exist in both industrial regions (particularly in Kwinana), mostly in three broad areas: water, energy, and inorganic by‐product reuse. To enhance the further development of new regional synergies, the Centre for Sustainable Resource Processing (CSRP), a joint initiative of Australian minerals processing companies, research providers, and government agencies, has undertaken several collaborative projects. These include research to facilitate the process of identifying and evaluating potential synergy opportunities and assistance for the industries with feasibility studies and implementation of selected synergy projects in both regions. The article also reports on the progress to date from this CSRP research.     

Can Industrial Restructuring Lead to a Sustainable Future? A Critical Environmental Risk Assessment of Industrial Policy in Shandong Province,China

Shandong Province is attempting to realize a sustainable development path by industrial restructuring. This article attempts to forecast the outcomes of this policy, looking ahead to 2010 and 2020 by quantifying its resource demand and environmental effects. Prediction and analysis indicate that the industrial restructuring policy of Shandong Province is likely to prove beneficial to the environment, reducing energy and water consumption from the 2004 baseline. However, the analysis also indicates that the high anticipated economic growth rates will override any resource saving and pollutants reduction achieved. Natural resource supplies are insufficient to meet demand, and environmental quality is likely to deteriorate, rendering economic growth targets unachievable. However, if Shandong puts in place policies designed to achieve average energy and water consumption efficiency, SO₂ emission efficiency and wastewater treatment efficiency of OECD countries in 2004, then energy consumption, SO₂ emissions, wastewater, and Chemical Oxygen Demand discharges in 2020 will reduce in real terms with only water demand showing a slight increase over the 2004 baseline. The assessment suggests that further measures such as developing new and alternative energy sources, raising the utilization efficiency of energy and water resources, and improving pollution treatment are required if Shandong Province is to realize a balanced and sustainable development for its society, economy, and environment.     

Resource Use and Waste Generation by the Tourism Industry on the Big Island of Hawaii

A survey of the tourism industry on the island of Hawaii (the Big Island) in the state of Hawaii in the United States was conducted to collect baseline information on major resources (energy, food, and water consumption) and waste generation from five tourism sectors: accommodations, food and beverages (restaurants), golf courses, tourism services (tours), and rental cars. The questionnaire was developed and 50 establishments from the target sectors participated in this survey. Resource consumption and waste generation were calculated by the number of establishments, employees, and visitors. Using these factors and island‐wide statistics (the number of establishments, job counts, and visitors), this study estimated the current status of island‐wide water, food, and energy consumption and waste generation by these five sectors of the tourism industry. The estimate shows that the tourism sectors surveyed for this study account for 21.7% of the island's total energy consumption, 44.7% of the island‐wide water consumption, and 10.7% of the island‐wide waste generation. Using a per guest emission factor (such as per employee, guest room, and seat) provided in this study, the owners and managers of tourism establishments can calculate a baseline for each resource input and output. This is essential information to improve the industry's efficiency and result in economic savings.     

Trait discovery and editing in tomato

Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum), which is used for both processing and fresh markets, is a major crop species that is the top ranked vegetable produced over the world. Tomato is also a model species for research in genetics, fruit development and disease resistance. Genetic resources available in public repositories comprise the 12 wild related species and thousands of landraces, modern cultivars and mutants. In addition, high quality genome sequences are available for cultivated tomato and for several wild relatives, hundreds of accessions have been sequenced, and databases gathering sequence data together with genetic and phenotypic data are accessible to the tomato community. Major breeding goals are productivity, resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses, and fruit sensorial and nutritional quality. New traits, including resistance to various biotic and abiotic stresses and root architecture, are increasingly being studied. Several major mutations and quantitative trait loci (QTLs) underlying traits of interest in tomato have been uncovered to date and, thanks to new populations and advances in sequencing technologies, the pace of trait discovery has considerably accelerated. In recent years, clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR)/Cas9 gene editing (GE) already proved its remarkable efficiency in tomato for engineering favorable alleles and for creating new genetic diversity by gene disruption, gene replacement, and precise base editing. Here, we provide insight into the major tomato traits and underlying causal genetic variations discovered so far and review the existing genetic resources and most recent strategies for trait discovery in tomato. Furthermore, we explore the opportunities offered by CRISPR/Cas9 and their exploitation for trait editing in tomato.     

Seabird abundance, biomass and prey consumption within Prydz Bay, Antarctica, 1980/1981–1992/1993

Annual observations of seabirds within Prydz Bay, East Antarctica, between the 1980/1981 and 1992/1993 seasons revealed siginificant changes in abundance of the 9 resident and 15 non-resident species. An estimated 4.85 million individual residents and 2.35 million individual non-residents were present each season. For resident and non-resident species, mean abundance was 3.75 and 1.81 birds/km², and mean biomass was 6.67 and 1.70 kg/km², respectively. Based on estimated abundances, the total consumption of marine resources by the seabird community within Prydz Bay ranged from 471,000 to 1.1 million tonnes (mean 752,000±176,000 tonnes) per 6-month summer, or between 2.02 and 4.53 kg/km² per day (mean 3.23±0.76 kg/km² per day). The mean energy flux to the seabird community within Prydz Bay each summer was 3.13*10¹² kJ, (range: 2.0*10¹² kJ–4.4*10¹² kJ), of which 66% went to the resident species. Regional abundance and biomass estimates for resident and non-resident species were both negatively correlated; when the estimated abundance and biomass of resident species were high, those of non-resident species were low. Received: 4 January 1996/Accepted: 3 July 1996     

Domestic water versus imported virtual blue water for agricultural production: A comparison based on energy consumption and related greenhouse gas emissions

The supply of water, food, and energy in our global economy is highly interlinked. Virtual blue water embedded into internationally traded food crops has therefore been extensively researched in recent years. This study focuses on the often neglected energy needed to supply this blue irrigation water. It provides a globally applicable and spatially explicit approach to the watershed level for water source specific quantification of energy consumption and related greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions of irrigation water supply. The approach is applied to Israel's total domestic and imported food crop supply of 105 crops by additionally including import-related transportation energy and emissions. Total energy use and related emissions of domestic crop production were much lower (551 GWh/422 kt CO₂-equivalents [CO₂e]) than those embedded into crop imports (1639 GWh/649 kt CO₂e). Domestic energy and emissions were mainly attributable to the irrigation water supply with artificial water sources (treated domestic wastewater and desalinated water, 84%). Transport accounted for 79% and 66% of virtually imported energy and emissions, respectively. Despite transport, specific GHG emissions (CO₂e per ton of crop) were significantly lower for several crops (e.g., olives, almonds, chickpeas) compared to domestic production. This could be attributed to the high share of energy-intensive artificial water supply in combination with higher irrigation water demands in Israel. In the course of an increasing demand for artificial water supply in arid and semi-arid regions, our findings point to the importance of including “energy for water” into comparative environmental assessment of crop supply to support decision-making related to the water–energy–food nexus.