Tomato stem trichomes and dispersal success ofPhytoseiulus persimilis relative to its preyTetranychus urticae

Tomato varieties used at present for commercial production in Dutch glasshouses have a high density of glandular trichomes on the stem, but a very low density on the leaves. The two-spotted spider mite,Tetranychus urticae Koch, and the predatory mite,Phytoseiulus persimilis Athias-Henriot, usually disperse from leaf to leaf via the stem, thereby incurring high risks of entrapment (and death) in the exudate of the glandular trichomes. These risks have been quantified on the tomato cv. Turbo and an accession ofLycopersicon peruvianum almost free of glandular trichomes. The possible consequences for biological control are discussed and new perspectives for predator release strategies and for plant breeding are considered.     

Receptor cell responses in the anterior tarsi ofPhytoseiulus persimilis to volatile kairomone components

Electrophysiological recordings were made of chemoreceptors on the tarsi of the first legs of the predatory mitePhytoseiulus persimilis A.-H. The high electrical resistance of the tissue (30–170 G) necessitated electrode insertion very close to chemoreceptor cells to obtain spikes of detectable amplitude. Responses were obtained to two of the four known components of a volatile kairomone that is used in distant prey location. This first electrophysiological investigation of chemoreception in phytoseiid mites proves the chemoreceptive function of the tarsal receptors. However, due to extreme technical difficulties the results were too incomplete to allow comparison with investigations on the behavioral response towards the chemicals tested.     

Studies on the basic components of the predation ofPhytoseiulus persimilis Athias-Henriot (Acarina: Phytoseiidae)

The basic components of the predation of Phytoseiulus persimilisAthias-Henriot feeding upon eggs of Tetranychus urticaeKoch were studied in an open system where the predator could disperse freely. The type of the functional response of the predator to the density of its prey was the same as that studied so far in a closed system, i.e.,Holling's Type 2. The search rate of the predator, however, was much lower in comparison with the result from a closed system. The oviposition of the predator per day was only weakly related to prey densities higher than 10 per leaf disc. But the emigration rate was inversely dependent upon the initial prey density up to 60 per leaf disc. The searching behaviour of the predator was influenced by both the web density spun by T. urticae and the density of the prey: the predator searched for its prey intensively only after it had contact with web. Mutual interference was observed in prey consumption, but not in the emigration rate. The emigration rate was largely dependent upon the prey density available per predator.     

Evaluation of different methods to assess the side-effects of pesticides on Phytoseiulus persimilis A.-H.

Two methods recommended by the International Organization for Biological and Integrated Control of Noxious Animals and Plants (IOBC) to test the side-effect of pesticide residues on Phytoseiulus persimilis in the laboratory were evaluated. The test on detached leaves resulted in an unacceptably high percentage of escaping individuals. This was not the case when the tests were performed in ventilated glass cages. To validate the results obtained in the laboratory additional experiments were performed on intact plants in the greenhouse. Results obtained on detached leaves underestimate effects found in the greenhouse, whereas effects measured in the glass cages are an overestimation. Besides the effect of residue on juvenile survival and adult reproduction, ovicidal effects and the effect of direct contact for adults and eggs were also taken into account in the evaluation. All tests were performed with endosulfan. It is concluded that the use of this compound at the recommended field concentration is not compatible with the use of P. persimilis.     

腐殖质呼吸作用及其生态学意义

腐殖质呼吸是厌氧环境中普遍存在的一种微生物呼吸代谢模式.自1996年发现以来,日益成为生态学与环境科学领域的研究热点.在厌氧条件下,一些微生物能以腐殖质作为唯一电子受体,氧化环境中的有机质或者甲苯等环境有毒物质,产生CO2,参与碳循环;同时,腐殖质呼吸作用产生的还原态腐殖质可以还原环境中的一些氧化态物质,如Fe(III)、Mn(IV)、Cr(VI)、U(VI) 、硝基芳香化合物和多卤代污染物.因此,腐殖质呼吸能够影响环境中C、N、Fe、Mn以及一些痕量金属元素的生物地球化学循环,并且能够促进重金属以及有机污染物的脱毒,在水体自净、污染土壤原位修复、污水处理等方面具有积极作用.     

植物源异戊二烯及其生态意义

异戊二烯为植物挥的众多有机碳氢化合物中的主要成分,它的合成和释放对全球尺度上的C素平衡、温室效应的大气污染都有极其重要的作用。本文系统论述了影响异戊二烯释放的主要因子,异戊二烯的释放量及其计量方法,以及它可能的生态意义,指出了研究多重环境胁迫与异戊二烯合成和释放的关系的必要性。     

新开河流域土地利用格局变化及其生态学意义

基于利用不同时期的地形图和TM遥感数据,运用ARC/INFO软件,以马尔柯夫空间概率模型为基础,对新开河流域的土地利用格局变化及驱动因素进行的分析,论证新开河流域土地利用结构日趋不合理：不仅林地占地最小,而且土地盐碱化、沙化严重,草地退化严重,生态环境质量整体向恶化方向发展,分析了生态环境恶化的原因,探讨了土地利用格局变化的生态学意义,提出了治理措施和方法.     

植冠种子库及其生态意义研究

植冠种子库由成熟的种子宿存在植冠上形成。种子可在植物植冠中存留1～30年或者更长时间。40属木本植物中有1200种植物具有植冠种子库,它们大多分布在火灾易发区和干旱区。植冠种子库是植物繁殖对策的一个方面,具有延缓繁殖体传播、使繁殖体免受捕食、调节萌发时间、将种子降落在适宜位置等生态功能。本文对植冠种子库的概念、分类、具有植冠种子库物种的地理分布、植冠种子库的研究现状及植冠种子库研究中存在的问题进行了论述。应加强对干旱区植冠种子库种子脱落机制和沙漠地区植冠种子库生态意义的研究。     

A mass balance evaluation of the ecological significance of historical nitrogen fluxes in Lake Kinneret

Lake Kinneret (LK) is a monomictic lake that has undergone significant biological and chemical changes over the last three decades of the twentieth century. The transition between the 1970s and the 1980s attracted a lot of scientific attention as it was marked by significant changes in the ecology of the lake. In the early 1980s, phytoplankton biomass increased, apparently in response to an increase in the external soluble reactive phosphorus (SRP) load. This period was marked by a rise in hypolimnetic levels of ammonium (NH₄) and SRP as well as surface water dissolved oxygen (DO) and pH. Cconcomitantly, in surface waters in winter levels of NH₄ increased and NO₃ decreased. In this study interrelationships amongst these observations were examined with a mass balance modelling approach, including simulation of individual nutrient sources and sinks, focusing on nitrogen fluxes in winter. The step-like rise in phytoplankton biomass in 1981 may have been triggered by the increase in winter external loads of SRP, as P is likely to be the growth-limiting nutrient during this season. The additional P load led to a sequence of changes including greater summer phytoplankton biomass, followed by enhanced sedimentation of organic matter. Furthermore, higher organic matter mineralization fluxes within the hypolimnion resulted in elevated levels of NH₄ and SRP in this layer through the 1980s, with a feedback to productivity in the trophogenic zone following seasonal destratification in early winter. In an apparent transition period (late 1970s to early 1980s), an increase in the modelled rate of nitrate (NO₃) production occurred via nitrification together with increased uptake of the additional nitrate by phytoplankton. These results are consistent with increased phytoplankton abundance and elevated levels of surface water NH₄ and DO during this period. Through this period the increase in phytoplankton uptake of NO₃ predominated over the increase in nitrification, and NO₃ concentrations in the 1980s were reduced compared with the previous decade, with increased partitioning of N in biomass and NH₄.     

On plastic and non-plastic variation in clonal plant morphology and its ecological significance

Morphological plasticity in clonal plants has received wide attention because localized plastic changes in spacer length, branching intensity and branching angle may enable clonal plants to place ramets selectively in the more favourable microhabitats within a heterogeneous environment. These responses have been interpreted in terms of foraging behaviour. Studies of morphological plasticity in clonal plants are usually carried out with one or two genotypes of a species, or with material of unknown genetic origin. Based on the concept of phenotypic plasticity, it is argued that such studies do not reveal whether plasticity in a population can be modified by natural selection. In addition, responses are often evaluated at two environmental conditions only, which may underestimate plasticity. Hence, our information on the ecological and evolutionary significance of morphological plasticity in clonal plants is still very incomplete. Two examples are given to show that stolon internode and rhizome lengths may vary considerably within an individual plant. Only a minor part of this variation may be plastic, i.e. the variation is hardly changed by the environmental conditions to which the plants are subjected. Hence, non-plastic variation in clonal morphology may exceed the degree of morphological plasticity. The non-plastic variation seems to originate from species-specific patterns of stolon and rhizome development. Marked non-plastic variation may obscure the effects of morphological plasticity on the placement pattern of ramets in the field, suggesting that plasticity in clonal morphology may not be very effective in terms of foraging for favourable patches. Possible reasons for the low levels of plasticity of clonal spacers are discussed.     

“源”“汇”景观理论及其生态学意义

格局与过程的关系是景观生态学研究中的核心内容.景观格局指数是定量分析景观格局与生态过程的主要方法,但由于许多景观格局指数难以将格局与过程有机融合在一起而陷入困境,探讨景观格局分析中有效表征生态过程的理论与方法,对于景观生态学的发展具有积极意义.基于大气污染中的“源”“汇”理论,在已有研究基础上,提出了“源”“汇”景观的概念和理论.认为根据不同景观类型的功能,可以将他们划分为“源”“汇”两种景观类型,从而将过程的内涵融于景观格局分析中.该理论认为：（1）在格局与过程研究中,异质景观可以分为“源”“汇”景观两种类型,其中“源”景观是指那些能促进过程发展的景观类型,“汇”景观是那些能阻止或延缓过程发展的景观类型;（2）“源”“汇”景观的性质是相对的,对于某一过程的“源”景观,可能是另一过程的“汇”景观,“源”“汇”景观的分析必须针对特定的过程;（3）“源”“汇”景观区分的关键在于判断景观类型在生态过程演变中所起的作用,是正向推动作用还是负向滞缓作用;（4）不同类型“源”（或者“汇”）景观对于同一种生态过程的贡献是不同的,在分析景观格局对生态过程的影响时需要考虑这种作用的差异;（5）“源”“汇”景观理论可以应用于非点源污染、生物多样性保护、城市热岛效应等不同领域.“源”“汇”景观理论提出的主要目的是探究不同景观类型在空间上的动态平衡对生态过程影响,从而找到适合一个地区的景观空间格局.这一理论的提出有助于推动景观格局与生态过程研究的深入,希望以此为基础,通过大量的实证研究,丰富和完善“源”、“汇”景观的理论和方法.     

Source-sink landscape theory and its ecological significance

Exploring the relationships between landscape pattern and ecological processes is the key topic of landscape ecology, for which, a large number of indices as well as landscape pattern analysis model were developed. However, one problem faced by landscape ecologists is that it is hard to link the landscape indices with a specific ecological process. Linking landscape pattern and ecological processes has become a challenge for landscape ecologists. “Source” and “sink” are common concepts used in air pollution research, by which the movement direction and pattern of different pollutants in air can be clearly identified. In fact, for any ecological process, the research can be considered as a balance between the source and the sink in space. Thus, the concepts of “source” and “sink” could be implemented to the research of landscape pattern and ecological processes. In this paper, a theory of sourcesink landscape was proposed, which include: (1) In the research of landscape pattern and ecological process, all landscape types can be divided into two groups, “source” landscape and “sink” landscape. “Source” landscape contributes positively to the ecological process, while “sink” landscape is unhelpful to the ecological process. (2) Both landscapes are recognized with regard to the specific ecological process. “Source” landscape in a target ecological process may change into a “sink” landscape as in another ecological process. Therefore, the ecological process should be determined before “source” or “sink” landscape were defined. (3) The key point to distinguish “source” landscape from “sink” landscape is to quantify the effect of landscape on ecological process. The positive effect is made by “source” landscape, and the negative effect by “sink” landscape. (4) For the same ecological process, the contribution of “source” landscapes may vary, and it is the same to the “sink” landscapes. It is required to determine the weight of each landscape type on ecological processes. (5) The sourcesink principle can be applied to non-point source pollution control, biologic diversity protection, urban heat island effect mitigation, etc. However, the landscape evaluation models need to be calibrated respectively, because different ecological processes correspond with different source-sink landscapes and evaluation models for the different study areas. This theory is helpful to further study landscape pattern and ecological process, and offers a basis for new landscape index design. __________ Translated from Acta Ecologica Sinica, 2006, 26(5): 1444–1449 [译自: 生态学报]     

Source-sink landscape theory and its ecological significance

Exploring the relatiouships between landscape pattern and ecological processes is the key topic of landscape ecology,for which,a large number of indices as well as landscape pattern analysis model were developed.However,one problem faced by landscape ecologists is that it is hard to link the landscape indices with a specific ecological process.Linking landscape pattern and ecological processes has become a challenge for landscape ecologists."Source" and "sink" are common concepts used in air pollution research,by which the movement direction and pattern of different pollutants in air can be clearly identified.In fact,for any ecological process,the research can be considered as a balance between the source and the sink in space.Thus,the concepts of "source" and "sink" could be implemented to the research of landscape pattern and ecological processes.In this paper,a theory of sourcesink landscape was proposed,which include:(1) In the research of landscape pattern and ecological process,all landscape types can be divided into two groups,"source"landscape and "sink" landscape."Source" landscape contributes positively to the ecological process,while "sink" landscape is unhelpful to the ecological process.(2) Both landscapes are recognized with regard to the specific ecological process."Source" landscape in a target ecological process may change into a "sink"landscape as in another ecological process.Therefore,the ecological process should be determined before "source"or "sink" landscape were defined.(3) The key point to distinguish "source" landscape from "sink" landscape is to quantify the effect of landscape on ecological process.The positive effect is made by "source" landscape,and the negative effect by "sink" landscape.(4) For the same ecological process,the contribution of "source" landscapes may vary,and it is the same to the "sink"landscapes.It is required to determine the weight of each landscape type on ecological processes.(5) The sourcesink principle can be applied to non-point source pollution control,biologic diversity protection,urban heat island effect mitigation,etc.However,the landscape evaluation models need to be calibrated respectively,because different ecological processes correspond with different source-sink landscapes and evaluation models for the different study areas.This theory is helpful to further study landscape pattern and ecological process,and offers a basis for new landscape index design.     

Comparison of dimethoate and methidathion tolerance in four strains ofPhytoseiulus persimilis (Athias-Henriot) (Acarina: Phytoseiidae) in Australia

The toxicity of dimethoate 30EC and methidathion 40EC was tested against four strains ofPhytoseiulus persimilis obtained from commercial greenhouse rose crops. A single strain ofP. persimilis demonstrated tolerance to the field rate of 1.0 ml/l dimethoate used to controlHeliothrips haemorrhoidalis as indicated by the LC₅₀ of 1.5 ml/l ai and a significantly different response at the LC₉₀ level (P<0.05) to the three other strains tested. None of the strains was different in level of response to methidathion (P>0.05) and were unable to tolerate the recommended field rate of methidathion. Selection to dimethoate by routine field spraying has produced improved tolerance inP. persimilis. The dimethoate-tolerant strain was not different in developmental period and mean number of eggs produced per female when compared with the Sydney strain (P>0.05).     

Effect of different release rates ofPhytoseiulus persimilis [Acarina: Phytoseiidae] on the twospotted spider mite on strawberry in southern California

The effect of different release rates of a predaceous mite,Phytoseiulus persimilis Athias-Henriot, on the twospotted spider mite,Tetranychus urticae Koch, on strawberry was investigated in southern California in 1970–71. The spider mite population reached a peak of 206.3 active stages/leaflet in the low-rate (5/plant) release plot on May 4 and 169.1/leaflet in the high-rate (10/plant) release plot on May 18, compared to a peak of 433.4/leaflet in the control (no release) plot on May 11. The mean numbers of spider mites in the low-, and high-rate release plots were significantly different from the control from April 6 through June 15, but were never significantly different from each other. The predator population reached a peak of 13.1 and 23.8 active stages/leaflet in the low-, and high-rate release plots, respectively, on May 25 which was 3 weeks and 1 week after the spider mite population reached its peak in these plots. The seasonal mean numbers of spider mite active stages in the low-, and high-rate release plots were significantly different (P=0.05) from the control, but were not significantly different from each other. There were no significant differences in fruit yield (g/plant) or fruit size between the low-, and high-rate release and control plots.

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Résumé Des lachers de l'acarien prédateurPhytoseiulus persimilis Athias-Henriot ont été réalisés en 1970–71 dans deux fraiseraies de la Californie du Sud infestées parTetranychus urticae Koch. La densité des populations larvaires deT. urticae a atteint le 4 mai un maximum de 206,3 par foliole là où le lacher avait été de 5 par plante (parcelle 1) et de 169,1 pour 10 prédateurs par plant (parcelle 2) le 11 mai, alors que le témoin en contenait 433,4 par foliole. La densité des populations larvaires deT. urticae était comparable dans les parcelles 1 et 2 entre le 6 avril et le 15 juin, mais divergeait sensiblement de celle du témoin. Les populations de larves du prédateur ont atteint un maximum de 13,1 et 23,8 par foliole dans les parcelles 1 et 2 les 13 et 25 mai, respectivement, soit 3 semaines et 1 semaine après que celles deT. urticae aient atteint leur maximum. Pour la saison, la densité moyenne des populations larvaires deT. urticae enregistrée dans les parcelles 1 et 2 différaient considérablement de celle du témoin (P=0.05), mais la différence entre les terrains 1 et 2 n'était pas significative. Il n'y a pas eu de différences importantes entre la récolte de fraises (g/plante) ou la dimension des fruits récoltés dans les parcelles 1 et 2 et le témoin.

     

植物叶表面的润湿性及其生态学意义

植物叶表面的润湿性是各种生境中常见的一种现象,表现了叶片对水的亲和能力。叶面的润湿性可以通过测定气、固、液界面的接触角大小确定,接触角θ＜110°的为润湿,θ＞130°的为不润湿,表现出斥水性。影响叶片润湿性的主要因素有叶面蜡质含量与形态,叶面绒毛数量、质地、形态和分布方式,气孔和表皮细胞形态和大小,叶水分状况等。叶表面的化学组成和形态是影响叶润湿性的主要内在原因,但外界环境的变化通过影响表面的结构和形态来影响叶润湿性。叶面的润湿性是植物叶片截流降水的微观基础,水分在润湿性强的叶面上铺展呈膜;在不润湿的叶面上形成水珠,容易在风和重力的作用下离开叶面;铺展的水膜,又会对叶的光合作用产生重要的影响。不同润湿性的叶面,滞留、吸附、过滤各种大气污染物数量不同;这些污染物沉降在叶片表面,与叶面发生相互作用,从而改变叶面的润湿性。植物叶含水量的高低对叶感染病菌有重要的影响,在病菌感染期间如果叶表面完全润湿则有利于病菌侵染;一旦病菌侵染,又会对叶面结构造成破坏,需要考虑润湿性能对防治病虫害的农药液滴持留的影响。对于润湿性小、斥水性大的植物,其叶表面表现出一定的自清洁功能;根据这些高疏水性、具有自清洁性的植物叶面特征,可利用或借鉴生物学信息进行仿生设计或制造新的功能材料。润湿性作为固、气、液三相作用的综合结果,是认识植物界面关系的微观基础,对于植物叶面生态功能的认识具有重要的意义。