EGCG通过抑制wnt/β-catenin信号通路调节猪骨骼肌卫星细胞的增殖和分化

为了阐明Wnt/β-catenin信号通路在猪骨骼肌卫星细胞增殖分化中的作用,利用Wnt/β-catenin信号通路抑制剂(-)-表没食子儿茶素没食子酸酯(EGCG)处理猪骨骼肌卫星细胞,采用MTT、流式细胞术、免疫荧光和Western印迹等方法检测了细胞增殖和分化情况.结果显示,与对照组相比,EGCG以时间、浓度依赖方式抑制猪骨骼肌卫星细胞的增殖.流式细胞术检测细胞周期结果表明,与对照组相比,经EGCG处理后,猪骨骼肌卫星细胞的G1期细胞比例上升,而G2和S期细胞比例下降,这说明细胞被阻滞在G1期,细胞的增殖受到抑制.免疫荧光检测分化过程中MyHC的表达,与对照组相比,EGCG促进猪骨骼肌卫星细胞的分化,并降低增殖标志基因MyoD以及细胞周期蛋白D的表达量,而提高了分化标志基因MyoG和MyHC的表达量.在猪骨骼肌卫星细胞增殖分化过程中,EGCG降低β-联蛋白的表达量,且核内的β-联蛋白明显减少.结果表明,EGCG通过抑制Wnt/β-catenin信号通路抑制猪骨骼肌卫星细胞的增殖,促进其分化.     

绵羊Myostatin基因启动子的功能分析

相比于Myostatin基因的作用机制而言, 对Myostatin基因转录和表达的调控机制了解很少. 为了更好地了解Myostatin基因5’调控区的结构和功能, 深入研究Myostatin基因的转录调控机制, 在最近的研究中克隆了绵羊Myostatin基因的启动子(Pro)序列(GenBank 登录号为AY918121). 进一步以EGFP为报告基因, 构建了各种长度的野生型MSTNPro^W-EGFP载体和E-box元件突变型MSTNPro^EM-EGFP载体, 通过转染C2C12小鼠骨骼肌成肌细胞系或绵羊成纤维细胞后, 对各种情况下EGFP的瞬时或稳定表达进行荧光定量分析而比较不同条件下绵羊Myostatin基因启动子的转录调控活性. 结果表明, 0.3~1.2 kb的绵羊Myostatin基因启动子都能不同程度地驱动EGFP在C2C12细胞中的转录和表达, 其中1.2 kb片段的转录调控活性最高. 然 而, 将绵羊1.2 kb MSTNPro^W-EGFP载体转染绵羊成纤维细胞后并未观察到EGFP的表达, 说明Myostatin基因表达的肌肉特异性源于启动子的转录特异性. 对稳定转染绵羊1.2 kb MSTNPro^W-EGFP载体的C2C12细胞进行荧光分析, 结果表明细胞生长密度的增加可以反馈性抑制Myostatin基因的转录和表达. 在C2C12分化状态下, 1.2 kb野生型绵羊Myostatin基因启动子的活性比成肌状态时显著升高, 而1.2 kb E(3+5+7)突变型Myostatin基因启动子的活性在C2C12分化前后并未表现出差别. 这一结果暗示肌肉调控因子MyoD可能是通过与E-box结合而引起Myostatin基因在C2C12分化和生长状态时转录和表达差异的一个原因.     

lncRNA TCONS_00815878对猪骨骼肌卫星细胞分化的影响

猪骨骼肌发育是一个复杂的生物学过程,其中骨骼肌卫星细胞分化是影响骨骼肌发育的重要环节。近年来发现长链非编码RNA (long non-coding RNA, lncRNA)在骨骼肌卫星细胞分化中具有重要作用。为探究lncRNA TCONS_00815878对猪骨骼肌卫星细胞分化的影响,本研究利用qRT-PCR技术检测出生7 d内大白仔猪6种组织(心脏、脾脏、肺脏、肾脏、背肌和腿肌)及从胚胎期到出生后5个不同时间点(35 d、45 d、55 d胚胎及产后第7 d和第200 d后腿肌肉组织) TCONS_00815878的表达情况;利用反义核苷酸(antisense oligonucleotides, ASO)在猪骨骼肌卫星细胞中敲低TCONS_00815878,检验分化标记基因MyoD、MyoG和MyHC表达情况;通过生物信息学分析预测TCONS_00815878靶基因,并利用DAVID软件在线预测其靶基因的功能与通路。结果表明:TCONS_00815878在猪心肌和腿肌中高表达;仔猪出生后7 d内,TCONS_00815878在猪肌肉组织中表达量不断升高,第7 d达到高峰;在猪骨骼肌卫星细胞增殖和分化过程中,TCONS_00815878在分化期表达量不断上升,且在分化30 h表达量达到峰值;敲低TCONS_00815878后,MyoD、MyoG和MyHC基因表达量降低,其中MyoD表达量显著下降(P0.05)。此外,功能预测结果发现,其靶基因富集到糖酵解和丙酮酸代谢等与骨骼肌卫星细胞分化相关的多个生物学过程。本研究推测,lncRNA TCONS_00815878可能对猪骨骼肌卫星细胞的分化起促进作用。     

利用CRISPRi干扰研究MyoG和Myf6基因对牛骨骼肌卫星细胞分化的影响

CRISPR干扰(clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeat interference,CRISPRi)技术因高效的基因干扰效率而成为基因功能研究的重要工具。Myo G、Myf6基因是生肌调节因子家族(myogenic regulatory factors,MRFs)的重要成员,是骨骼肌分化所必需的调控因子。该研究以牛骨骼肌卫星细胞为实验材料,探讨Myo G和Myf6基因在骨骼肌卫星细胞分化过程中的相互关系。构建Myo G、Myf6基因CRISPRi载体,分别转染牛骨骼肌卫星细胞,诱导其分化,Real-time PCR检测肌肉分化重要功能基因Myo G、Myf6、MYH2、Myo D的表达情况。结果表明,在牛骨骼肌卫星细胞分化期间,抑制Myo G基因表达将诱导Myf6基因的代偿性升高,但并不能完全弥补Myo G基因的缺少对肌肉分化产生的影响,而抑制Myf6基因表达则不会引起Myo G基因表达升高,这为肌肉分化机制的阐明提供了理论依据。     

Myostatin对骨骼肌、褐色脂肪和白色脂肪组织作用及其机制研究进展

Myostatin(肌肉抑制素)在机体内主要担任负调节作用。研究表明Myostatin对骨骼肌、褐色脂肪组织和白色脂肪组织都产生负调节作用,具体表现为抑制骨骼肌细胞生长、抑制褐色脂肪细胞分化和降低白色脂肪褐色化。该文综述了Myostatin对骨骼肌、褐色脂肪和白色脂肪影响及其机制的最新研究进展,并介绍了一些以Myostatin/Smad信号通路作为靶点来治疗肥胖及其相关代谢疾病的研究成果。     

高表达FoxO1抑制猪骨骼肌成肌细胞的分化

FoxO1(Forkhead box O1)是调控肌肉生长、代谢和细胞分化的重要转录因子,但其在成肌细胞分化中的作用还不甚清楚。为了研究FoxO1对哺乳动物成肌细胞分化的影响,以原代培养的长白仔猪成肌细胞作为实验材料,用2%马血清诱导分化,采用实时荧光定量PCR、Western blotting和脂质体转染等方法检测FoxO1及早期和晚期生肌调节因子MyoD和myogenin在猪成肌细胞分化过程中的表达变化。结果显示,在猪成肌细胞分化过程中,FoxO1mRNA表达量显著增加,但总蛋白量变化不显著,其磷酸化水平显著上调。同时,高表达FoxO1的猪成肌细胞中,生肌调节因子MyoD和myogenin mRNA表达受到显著抑制,而MyoD蛋白变化不显著,myogenin却显著下调(P0.05)。以上结果表明,FoxO1能够推迟猪成肌细胞的分化时间并抑制分化;同时推测,FoxO1可能通过抑制生肌调节因子的表达控制骨骼肌纤维类型的终末分化。     

bFGF通过MAPK信号通路调节Myostatin表达

肌肉抑制素Myostatin是TGF-β(transforming growth factor-β)超家族成员之一,在哺乳动物及非哺乳动物中均能够抑制肌细胞的增殖和分化,是骨骼肌生长的负调控因子。但Myostatin基因自身是如何被调控的目前仍然不十分清楚。该实验发现,碱性成纤维细胞生长因子bFGF(basic fi broblast growth factor)能够上调Myostatin的表达。进一步分析表明,bFGF对于Myostatin的表达调控存在剂量和时间依赖性。同时实验还发现,MAPK信号通路部分地介导了bFGF对Myostatin基因的调节作用。     

RNAi抑制Smad4基因表达对猪卵巢颗粒细胞凋亡的影响

Smad蛋白家族是TGF-β/Smad信号通路中的重要成员,其中Smad4在该信号转导途径中起着关键作用。本研究利用RNAi技术沉默Smad4基因,探讨其对猪卵巢颗粒细胞凋亡的影响。设计并合成靶向Smad4的小分子干扰RNA,在脂质体的介导下转染猪卵巢颗粒细胞,荧光定量PCR检测Smad4 mRNA的表达情况;MTT(四甲基偶氮唑盐)比色法分析检测细胞活性;TUNEL(原位末端核苷酸标记法)及Annexin-V/PI双染流式细胞仪检测细胞凋亡情况;荧光定量PCR检测Bcl-2、Bax的mRNA表达水平。研究显示,Smad4-siRNA能有效抑制Smad4的mRNA表达(P0.01),细胞活性由0.31减少到0.27,凋亡率由17.0%增加到22.1%,Bcl-2的mRNA表达显著下调。结果说明沉默Smad4基因可以促进猪卵巢颗粒细胞的凋亡,其机制可能与调控Bcl-2表达有关。     

进行性肌营养不良患者Myostatin基因的表达分析

进行性肌营养不良是一组以进行性骨骼肌萎缩和无力为特征的肌源性肌病。肌肉抑制素（Myostatin）是最近发现的骨骼肌生长发育抑制因子。为探讨Myostatin基因与进行性肌营养不良病理发生的相关性,采用RTPCR方法克隆了患者的Myostatin基因并测序、分析肌营养不良患者是否存在Myostatin基因突变;然后采用半定量RT-PCR方法检测患者中Myostatin基因的表达水平是否发生改变,同时用Western blot方法分析了肌营养不良患者中Myostatin蛋白的表达情况。结果发现,所研究的肌营养不良患者中没有携带Myostatin基因突变,但一些患者的Myostatin基因转录水平降低,部分患者Myostatin蛋白加工障碍。结果提示,一些类型（亚型）的进行性肌营养不良可能与肌肉抑制素Myostatin基因表达异常、蛋白加工障碍有关。     

进行性肌营养不良患者Myo

进行性肌营养不良是一组以进行性骨骼肌萎缩和无力为特征的肌源性肌病.肌肉抑制素(Myostatin)是最近发现的骨骼肌生长发育抑制因子.为探讨Myostatin基因与进行性肌营养不良病理发生的相关性,采用RT-PCR方法克隆了患者的Myostatin基因并测序、分析肌营养不良患者是否存在Myostatin基因突变;然后采用半定量RT-PCR方法检测患者中Myostatin基因的表达水平是否发生改变,同时用Western blot方法分析了肌营养不良患者中Myostatin蛋白的表达情况.结果发现,所研究的肌营养不良患者中没有携带Myostatin基因突变,但一些患者的Myostatin基因转录水平降低,部分患者Myostatin蛋白加工障碍.结果提示,一些类型(亚型)的进行性肌营养不良可能与肌肉抑制素Myostatin基因表达异常、蛋白加工障碍有关.     

Myostatin inhibits myoblast differentiation by down-regulating MyoD expression

Myostatin, a negative regulator of myogenesis, is shown to function by controlling the proliferation of myoblasts. In this study we show that myostatin is an inhibitor of myoblast differentiation and that this inhibition is mediated through Smad 3. In vitro, increasing concentrations of recombinant mature myostatin reversibly blocked the myogenic differentiation of myoblasts, cultured in low serum media. Western and Northern blot analysis indicated that addition of myostatin to the low serum culture media repressed the levels of MyoD, Myf5, myogenin, and p21 leading to the inhibition of myogenic differentiation. The transient transfection of C(2)C(12) myoblasts with MyoD expressing constructs did not rescue myostatin-inhibited myogenic differentiation. Myostatin signaling specifically induced Smad 3 phosphorylation and increased Smad 3.MyoD association, suggesting that Smad 3 may mediate the myostatin signal by interfering with MyoD activity and expression. Consistent with this, the expression of dominant-negative Smad3 rescued the activity of a MyoD promoter-reporter in C(2)C(12) myoblasts treated with myostatin. Taken together, these results suggest that myostatin inhibits MyoD activity and expression via Smad 3 resulting in the failure of the myoblasts to differentiate into myotubes. Thus we propose that myostatin plays a critical role in myogenic differentiation and that the muscular hyperplasia and hypertrophy seen in animals that lack functional myostatin is because of deregulated proliferation and differentiation of myoblasts.     

Mechano growth factor (MGF) promotes proliferation and inhibits differentiation of porcine satellite cells (PSCs) by down-regulation of key myogenic transcriptional factors

Porcine satellite cells represent an ideal model system for studying the cellular and molecular basis regulating myogenic stem cell proliferation and differentiation and for exploring the experimental conditions for myoblast transplantation. Here, we investigated the effects of mechano growth factor (MGF), a spliced variant of the IGF-1 gene, on porcine satellite cells. We show that MGF potently stimulated proliferation while inhibited differentiation of porcine satellite cells. MGF-treatment acutely down-regulates the expression of myogenic determination factor (MyoD) and the cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor p21. MGF-treatment also markedly reduced the overall expression of cyclin B1 and key factors of the myogenic regulatory and myocyte enhancer families, including Myogenein and MEF2A. Taken together, the gene expression data from MGF-treated porcine satellite cells are in favor of a molecular model in which MGF inhibits porcine satellite cell differentiation by down-regulating either the activity or expression of MyoD, which, in turn, suppresses the expression of key genes required for cell cycle progression and differentiation, such as p21, Myogenin, and MEF2. Overall, our findings are in support of the previous suggestion that MGF may be used in vivo and in vitro to promote proliferation of myogenic stem cells to prevent and treat age-related muscle degenerative diseases.     

Myostatin signals through Pax7 to regulate satellite cell self-renewal

Myostatin, a Transforming Growth Factor-beta (TGF-beta) super-family member, has previously been shown to negatively regulate satellite cell activation and self-renewal. However, to date the mechanism behind Myostatin function in satellite cell biology is not known. Here we show that Myostatin signals via a Pax7-dependent mechanism to regulate satellite cell self-renewal. While excess Myostatin inhibited Pax7 expression via ERK1/2 signaling, an increase in Pax7 expression was observed following both genetic inactivation and functional antagonism of Myostatin. As a result, we show that either blocking or inactivating Myostatin enhances the partitioning of the fusion-incompetent self-renewed satellite cell lineage (high Pax7 expression, low MyoD expression) from the pool of actively proliferating myogenic precursor cells. Consistent with this result, over-expression of Pax7 in C2C12 myogenic cells resulted in increased self-renewal through a mechanism which slowed both myogenic proliferation and differentiation. Taken together, these results suggest that increased expression of Pax7 promotes satellite cell self-renewal, and furthermore Myostatin may control the process of satellite cell self-renewal through regulation of Pax7. Thus we speculate that, in addition to the intrinsic factors (such as Pax7), extrinsic factors both positive and negative in nature, will play a major role in determining the stemness of skeletal muscle satellite cells.     

Sox9 Represses α-Sarcoglycan Gene Expression in Early Myogenic Differentiation

Alpha sarcoglycan (α-SG) is highly expressed in differentiated striated muscle, and its disruption causes limb-girdle muscular dystrophy. Accordingly, the myogenic master regulator MyoD finely modulates its expression. However, the mechanisms preventing α-SG gene expression at early stages of myogenic differentiation remain unknown. In this study, we uncovered Sox9, which was not previously known to directly bind muscle gene promoters, as a negative regulator of α-SG gene expression. Reporter gene and chromatin immunoprecipitation assays revealed three functional Sox-binding sites that mediate α-SG promoter activity repression during early myogenic differentiation. In addition, we show that Sox9-mediated inhibition of α-SG gene expression is independent of MyoD. Moreover, we provide evidence suggesting that Smad3 enhances the repressive activity of Sox9 over α-SG gene expression in a transforming growth factor-β-dependent manner. On the basis of these results, we propose that Sox9 and Smad3 are responsible for preventing precocious activation of α-SG gene expression during myogenic differentiation.     

Follistatin complexes Myostatin and antagonises Myostatin-mediated inhibition of myogenesis

Follistatin is known to antagonise the function of several members of the TGF-beta family of secreted signalling factors, including Myostatin, the most powerful inhibitor of muscle growth characterised to date. In this study, we compare the expression of Myostatin and Follistatin during chick development and show that they are expressed in the vicinity or in overlapping domains to suggest possible interaction during muscle development. We performed yeast and mammalian two-hybrid studies and show that Myostatin and Follistatin interact directly. We further show that single modules of the Follistatin protein cannot associate with Myostatin suggesting that the entire protein is required for the interaction. We analysed the interaction kinetics of the two proteins and found that Follistatin binds Myostatin with a high affinity of 5.84 x 10(-10) M. We next tested whether Follistatin suppresses Myostatin activity during muscle development. We confirmed our previous observation that treatment of chick limb buds with Myostatin results in a severe decrease in the expression of two key myogenic regulatory genes Pax-3 and MyoD. However, in the presence of Follistatin, the Myostatin-mediated inhibition of Pax-3 and MyoD expression is blocked. We additionally show that Myostatin inhibits terminal differentiation of muscle cells in high-density cell cultures of limb mesenchyme (micromass) and that Follistatin rescues muscle differentiation in a concentration-dependent manner. In summary, our data suggest that Follistatin antagonises Myostatin by direct protein interaction, which prevents Myostatin from executing its inhibitory effect on muscle development.     

JAK2/STAT2/STAT3 are required for myogenic differentiation

Skeletal muscle satellite cell-derived myoblasts are mainly responsible for postnatal muscle growth and injury-induced regeneration. However, the cellular signaling pathways that control proliferation and differentiation of myoblasts remain poorly defined. Recently, we found that JAK1/STAT1/STAT3 not only participate in myoblast proliferation but also actively prevent them from premature differentiation. Unexpectedly, we found that a related pathway consisting of JAK2, STAT2, and STAT3 is required for early myogenic differentiation. Interference of this pathway by either a small molecule inhibitor or small interfering RNA inhibits myogenic differentiation. Consistently, all three molecules are activated upon differentiation. The pro-differentiation effect of JAK2/STAT2/STAT3 is partially mediated by MyoD and MEF2. Interestingly, the expression of the IGF2 gene and the HGF gene is also regulated by JAK2/STAT2/STAT3, suggesting that this pathway could also promote differentiation by regulating signaling molecules known to be involved in myogenic differentiation. In summary, our current study reveals a novel role for the JAK2/STAT2/STAT3 pathway in myogenic differentiation.