The phenotypic costs of captivity

The breeding of threatened species in captivity for release is a central tool in conservation biology. Given gloomy predictions for biodiversity trends in the Anthropocene, captive breeding will play an increasingly important role in preventing future extinctions. Relative to the wild, captive environments drastically alter selection pressures on animals. Phenotypic change in captive animals in response to these altered selection pressures can incur fitness costs post-release, jeopardising their potential contribution to population recovery. We explore the ways in which captive environments can hinder the expression of wild phenotypes. We also stress that the phenotypes of captive-bred animals differ from their wild counterparts in multiple ways that remain poorly understood. We propose five new research questions relating to the impact of captive phenotypes on reintroduction biology. With better use of monitoring and experimental reintroductions, a more robust evidence base should help inform adaptive management and minimise the phenotypic costs of captivity, improving the success of animal reintroductions.     

Sources of stress in captivity

Animals housed in artificial habitats are confronted by a wide range of potentially provocative environmental challenges. In this article, we review many of the potential stressors that may adversely affect animals living in captivity. These include abiotic, environmental sources of stress such as artificial lighting, exposure to loud or aversive sound, arousing odors, and uncomfortable temperatures or substrates. In addition, confinement-specific stressors such as restricted movement, reduced retreat space, forced proximity to humans, reduced feeding opportunities, maintenance in abnormal social groups, and other restrictions of behavioral opportunity are considered. Research in support of the claims for these environmental elements as stressors for captive animals reveals no unique suite of behavioral or physiological responses that will clearly indicate the cause of those responses; rather, it is up to us as managers and caretakers of animals in captivity to evaluate enclosures and husbandry practices to ensure the optimal well-being of animals in our care.     

环境丰容对笼养葵花凤头鹦鹉（Cacatua galerita）行为的影响

2009年7月-8月对上海动物园3只葵花凤头鹦鹉进行展区环境丰容试验,包括悬挂玩具、制作道具及增加取食难度等,采用瞬时扫描法记录并分析丰容前后葵花凤头鹦鹉的行为节律及对环境空间的利用特征.研究结果表明：葵花凤头鹦鹉的警戒、休息和走动行为在不同个体间存在显著差异（Kruskal Wallis test,P＜0.01）;环境丰容对葵花凤头鹗鹉的日常行为在时间分配和空间分布上均存在显著影响（Goodness of Fit test,P＜0.05）.主要表现为休息行为减少,活动增加;丰容区域利用增多,非丰容区域利用减少.环境丰容有利于减少动物的刻板行为、增加行为多样性,提高动物福利,同时应基于不同个体的特征和习性,有针对性的开展相应的丰容措施.     

Further observations on the potoroo (Potorous tridactylus) in captivity

The maintenance and breeding performance of potoroos in captivity over a 7-year period is described. By removing offspring from the pouch and allowing 29 days for completion of embryonic development and birth to occur, pouch young of known ages can be obtained.     

室内饲养条件下乌龟繁殖行为的观察

本文记述了在室内饲养条件下, 乌龟发情、交配和产卵的行为。     

Breeding antarctic krill in captivity

Antarctic krill were maintained in large aquaria at Port of Nagoya Aquarium, Japan, under controlled photoperiod and were fed on phytoplankton and enriched animal feed. Maturation and spawning were induced after the light : dark (L : D) cycle was increased from 8 : 16 or 12 : 12 to 24 : 0, or when the L : D cycle was held constant at 14 : 10. This study is one of the first studies that demonstrate initiation of maturation and spawning events of krill under controlled photoperiod. Out of three experimental batches of krill, a total of 28 spawning events were observed. The mean number of eggs per event was 1424 with a range between 139 and 3458. The mean hatching success per batch was 19.1%. The relation between photoperiod and maturity/spawning is discussed. Furthermore, hatching is compared to previous studies and the reason for the low success is discussed.     

Vocalizatons of chimpanzees in non-caged captivity

1. The chimpanzee vocal system is an emotionally linked vocal response developed on a standard pre-symbolic primate system.
2. Differences in number of sounds recorded by different observers may be due to personal choice, or due actual presence or absence of certain sound types in different living situations. Further research is needed in this case before comparisons can be made.
3. Idiosyncratic use of certain signals may serve as a basis for growth of local dialects in different areas. Spread of such dialects may be related to the amount of respect accorded to dominant animals. More study may shed light on the growth and development of pre-symbolic systems.

     

凹甲陆龟的人工饲养试验及行为观察初报

从2004年,人工饲养了18个凹甲陆龟,对其食性、行为、疾病等进行了观察。结果表明：凹甲陆龟喜躲藏于阴暗处,在人工饲养条件下爱吃平菇、熟地瓜、黄瓜、西红柿等瓜果,常患寄生虫、胃肠疾病,较难人工驯养,提出了凹甲陆龟人工饲养几点建议。     

Breeding antarctic krill in captivity

Antarctic krill were maintained in large aquaria at Port of Nagoya Aquarium, Japan, under controlled photoperiod and were fed on phytoplankton and enriched animal feed. Maturation and spawning were induced after the light?:?dark (L?:?D) cycle was increased from 8?:?16 or 12?:?12 to 24?:?0, or when the L?:?D cycle was held constant at 14?:?10. This study is one of the first studies that demonstrate initiation of maturation and spawning events of krill under controlled photoperiod. Out of three experimental batches of krill, a total of 28 spawning events were observed. The mean number of eggs per event was 1424 with a range between 139 and 3458. The mean hatching success per batch was 19.1%. The relation between photoperiod and maturity/spawning is discussed. Furthermore, hatching is compared to previous studies and the reason for the low success is discussed.     

室内饲养对高原鼠兔肠道微生物群落构建过程的影响

群落生态构建过程是近年来微生物群落生态学的研究热点。室内饲养可引起肠道菌群的剧烈变化,这种改变是否会影响群落的构建过程,一直未见报道。本文以高原鼠兔(Ochotona curzoniae)为对象,采用16S rRNA测序技术,探讨室内饲养和野生高原鼠兔肠道微生物群落在结构、功能以及群落构建过程等方面的差异。结果表明,在繁殖季节,室内饲养组的群落多样性指数和均匀度指数均显著低于野外组;群落丰度指数和群落覆盖度指数在非繁殖季节显著高于繁殖季节。拟杆菌门(Bacteroidetes)在室内饲养组显著富集,而厚壁菌门(Firmicute)和浮霉菌门(Planctomycetes)在野外组显著富集;在野外组,Epsilonbacteraeota和软壁菌门(Tenericutes)在繁殖季节显著富集。菌群功能分析显示,室内饲养组与野生组在细胞通讯和心血管疾病通路存在显著差异;野外组繁殖季节与非繁殖季节肠道菌群功能在氨基酸代谢、碳水化合物代谢和脂质代谢等通路存在显著差异。中性模型拟合结果表明,室内饲养明显降低了菌群构建的随机过程。野外组生理状态也会降低菌群构建的随机性。本研究证明室内饲养和宿主生理状...     

Management imperatives forVarecia in captivity

A review of the captive history and status ofVarecia is presented followed by specific management recommendations for bothVarecia v. variegata andVarecia v. rubra. The total living captive population for the nominate form numbers 398 animals while that for the red and black form numbers 148 individuals as of 31 December 1986.Varecia v. variegata is reported to be a rapidly growing population originating from a founder population (wildborn animals which have produced offspring) of 21 animals. Management direction for this subspecies includes equalization of founder representation and controlled reproduction.Varecia v. rubra is reported to be more highly inbred with 79.35% of the captive population originating from 3 of 8 founders. The management imperatives for this subspecies include: 1) acquisition of a small number of wildborn red ruffed lemurs to be infused into the captive population over an extended period of time; 2) increase population; 3) equalize founder representation; 4) locate space. Encouragement ofin situ research and conservation activities is strongly advocated. Formerly: International Ruffed Lemur Studbook Keeper San Diego Zoo Box 551, San Diego, California 92112     

Chimpanzee triplets born in captivity

A female chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes) gave birth to triplets at the Lincoln Park Zoological Gardens, Chicago, Illinois. Of the three infants born, only one survived. The other two, both sexed as males, were dead when they were discovered. When pathology was done on these infants, it was found that aside from being underweight, chimpanzee No. 1 was 930 g and chimpanzee No. 2, 630 g, the animals had never developed a brain. The female nursed the surviving male infant for six days till it was taken for hand-rearing. The infant was in a weakened condition and weighed 890 g. He died on the next day. This is possibly the first birth of triplet chimpanzees in a North American zoological garden.     

Dynamics of genetic adaptation to captivity

Many species require captive breeding to savethem from extinction, with reintroduction intothe wild being the eventual aim of mostprograms. Adaptation to captive environmentstypically results in reduced fitness under wildconditions. Consequently, unintentionaladaptation during captive breeding programs mayseriously compromise the success ofreintroduction programs. However, there islittle experimental evidence on the rate orextent of adaptation for captive populationsmaintained under benign captive conditions forextended periods of time. To investigate thedynamics of genetic adaptation to captivity,large captive populations of Drosophilamelanogaster were assessed for relativefitness under captive conditions for up to 87generations in captivity. Captive fitnessincreased to 3.33 times the initial fitnessover 87 generations. The pattern of adaptationwas curvilinear, with an exponential curveproviding the best fit. Fitness reached 25% ofits maximum within 6 generations, 50% within15 generations, 75% within 31 generations and95% within 67 generations. The model predictedthat the asymptotic level of fitness reachedwould be 3.38 times the initial fitness. Thus,very large genetic adaptations to captivity mayoccur under relatively benign captiveconditions. Captive populations destined forreintroduction need to be managed to minimisegenetic adaptation to captivity.     

Some observations on mating behaviour of several cranes in captivity

Responding to the actions of the mate and taking somewhat fixed patterns,Grus japonensis, G. vipio, G. antigone, Anthropoides paradisea andBalearica regulorum pairs are finally led to copulation by a sequence of mating behaviours. There are slight differences in pre-copulatory behaviour patterns between the species and the female's ‘wing-spreading’, being the soliciting and key posture for copulation, differs between the genera; The female's wings are spread wide inGrus, fairly wide inAnthropoides, and are almost folded inBalearica. Post-copulatory behaviours, however, have definite species-specific characters. They usually consist of ‘head-down’ (bowing) or ‘warping’, ‘arching’, etc. immediately following the dismounting of the male inGrus. But a pair ofBalearica first keep their heads high, or gaze at each other for a while, and then show remarkable ‘ruffle-bowing’. These characteristic post-copulatory behaviours are obviously correlated with the threat displays, evolved under agonistic situations, typical to each species.     

Effects of rubberized flooring on Asian elephant behavior in captivity

Six Asian elephants at the Oregon Zoo were observed to determine the effects of a poured rubber flooring substrate on captive Asian elephant behavior. Room utilization also was evaluated in seven rooms used for indoor housing, including Front and Back observation areas. Data were collected in three phases. Phase I (Baseline Phase) examined elephant behavior on old concrete floors. In Phase II (Choice Phase), elephant behavior was observed in the Back observation area where room sizes were comparable and when a choice of flooring substrates was available. Phase III (Final Phase) examined elephant behavior when all rooms in both observation areas, Front and Back, were converted to rubberized flooring. Room use in both observation areas remained stable throughout the study, suggesting that flooring substrate did not affect room use choice. However, there was a clear pattern of decreased discomfort behaviors on the new rubber flooring. Normal locomotion as well as stereotypic locomotion increased on the new rubber flooring. In addition, resting behavior changed to more closely reflect the resting behavior of wild elephants, which typically sleep standing up, and spend very little time in lateral recumbence. Overall, these findings suggest that the rubber flooring may have provided a more comfortable surface for locomotion as well as standing resting behavior. It is suggested that poured rubber flooring may be a beneficial addition to similar animal facilities. Zoo Biol 0:1–11, 2007. © 2007 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.