Spred2 Modulates the Erythroid Differentiation Induced by Imatinib in Chronic Myeloid Leukemia Cells

Differentiation induction is currently considered as an alternative strategy for treating chronic myelogenous leukemia (CML). Our previous work has demonstrated that Sprouty-related EVH1 domainprotein2 (Spred2) was involved in imatinib mediated cytotoxicity in CML cells. However, its roles in growth and lineage differentiation of CML cells remain unknown. In this study, we found that CML CD34⁺ cells expressed lower level of Spred2 compared with normal hematopoietic progenitor cells, and adenovirus mediated restoration of Spred2 promoted the erythroid differentiation of CML cells. Imatinib could induce Spred2 expression and enhance erythroid differentiation in K562 cells. However, the imatinib induced erythroid differentiation could be blocked by Spred2 silence using lentiviral vector PLKO.1-shSpred2. Spred2 interference activated phosphorylated-ERK (p-ERK) and inhibited erythroid differentiation, while ERK inhibitor, PD98059, could restore the erythroid differentiation, suggesting Spred2 regulated the erythroid differentiation partly through ERK signaling. Furthermore, Spred2 interference partly restored p-ERK level leading to inhibition of erythroid differentiation in imatinib treated K562 cells. In conclusion, Spred2 was involved in erythroid differentiation of CML cells and participated in imatinib induced erythroid differentiation partly through ERK signaling.     

一种用作阴性对照的siRNA可诱导人K562细胞向红系分化

我们发现,一种在RNA干扰实验中用作阴性对照的商业化siRNA具有明显的诱 导人慢性髓性白血病K562细胞系向红系方向分化的作用.它表现为K562细胞瞬时转 染该siRNA后,红系分化的特异表面标志CD235及ε 、γ 和β 珠蛋白的表达升高,GATA-2的表达降低,细胞增殖速度减慢,软琼脂克隆形成率降低,并且此 过程不伴随细胞凋亡. 而生物信息学分析显示,该siRNA序列与目前所有已知人类 基因均无明显同源性.研究结果提示,该siRNA不适于用作红系分化实验中的阴性 对照. siRNA的作用远比人们目前所知的要复杂得多,siRNA的脱靶效应应当引起 研究者的足够重视,在RNA干扰实验中阴性对照siRNA的选择会极大地影响对实验 结果的判读.     

hERG Potassium Channel Blockage by Scorpion Toxin BmKKx2 Enhances Erythroid Differentiation of Human Leukemia Cells K562

Background

The hERG potassium channel can modulate the proliferation of the chronic myelogenous leukemic K562 cells, and its role in the erythroid differentiation of K562 cells still remains unclear.

Principal Findings

The hERG potassium channel blockage by a new 36-residue scorpion toxin BmKKx2, a potent hERG channel blocker with IC₅₀ of 6.7±1.7 nM, enhanced the erythroid differentiation of K562 cells. The mean values of GPA (CD235a) fluorescence intensity in the group of K562 cells pretreated by the toxin for 24 h and followed by cytosine arabinoside (Ara-C) treatment for 72 h were about 2-fold stronger than those of K562 cells induced by Ara-C alone. Such unique role of hERG potassium channel was also supported by the evidence that the effect of the toxin BmKKx2 on cell differentiation was nullified in hERG-deficient cell lines. During the K562 cell differentiation, BmKKx2 could also suppress the expression of hERG channels at both mRNA and protein levels. Besides the function of differentiation enhancement, BmKKx2 was also found to promote the differentiation-dependent apoptosis during the differentiation process of K562 cells. In addition, the blockage of hERG potassium channel by toxin BmKKx2 was able to decrease the intracellular Ca²⁺ concentration during the K562 cell differentiation, providing an insight into the mechanism of hERG potassium channel regulating this cellular process.

Conclusions/Significance

Our results revealed scorpion toxin BmKKx2 could enhance the erythroid differentiation of leukemic K562 cells via inhibiting hERG potassium channel currents. These findings would not only accelerate the functional research of hERG channel in different leukemic cells, but also present the prospects of natural scorpion toxins as anti-leukemic drugs.     

氯化高铁血红素诱导K562细胞红系分化对其细胞周期的影响

细胞周期的测量是细胞增殖动力学的研究基础。通过添加30μmol·L-1氯化高铁血红素(Hemin)诱导人慢性髓系白血病K562细胞红系分化,利用5-溴脱氧尿嘧啶核苷(BrdU)与7-AAD双染的方法检测Hemin诱导的K562红系分化细胞对细胞周期各期比例的影响,未诱导的K562细胞周期各期比例作为对照,检测发现Hemin诱导的K562红系分化细胞对其细胞周期相对值无明显影响。应用BrdU间隔染色结合流式细胞术的方法,通过分析BrdU间隔染色后BrdU阳性细胞群的动态变化规律,从而推算出K562红系分化细胞的倍增时间及细胞周期各期时长。根据测量结果发现,未诱导的K562细胞总倍增时间约为20 h,与通过生长曲线公式法计算倍增时间的结果相符,Hemin诱导的K562细胞的细胞周期倍增时长约为23 h。Hemin诱导的K562红系分化细胞较未诱导的K562细胞倍增时间与各期时长无明显差异。因此,Hemin诱导K562细胞红系分化对其细胞周期绝对值及相对值均无明显影响。     

Treatment of Chronic Myeloid Leukemia Cells with Imatinib (STI571) Impairs p53 Accumulation in Response to DNA Damage

Chronic myelogenous leukaemia (CML) is induced by the Bcr-Abl fusion protein. Inhibition of Bcr-Abl by STI571 is widely used to treat CML patients. Unlike in most cancer types, the frequency of p53 mutations in CML is low. Here, we investigated the effect of STI571 treatment of CML cells on p53 regulation. Exposure of CML cells, including established cell lines and freshly isolated cells from patients, to STI571 reduced p53 protein levels, and severely impaired its accumulation in response to DNA damage. This may be explained by the status of p53 serine 20 phosphorylation. In non-stressed CML cells, serine 20 of p53 is constitutively phosphorylated by Chk1, and is inhibited by STI571. In response to DNA damage, however, this phosphorylation is mediated by Chk1 and Chk2, and is only partially inhibited by STI571. CML cells expressing wild-type p53 are more resistant to treatment with STI571, but moderately more sensitive to DNA damage, than CML cells lacking p53. An enhanced induction of apoptosis by STI571 and DNA damage is observed in CML cells bearing wild-type p53, but not in cells lacking functional p53. This implies that the status of p53 may affect the response of CML cells to this combined treatment.     

VLA-5-mediated Adhesion to Fibronectin Accelerates Hemin-stimulated Erythroid Differentiation of K562 Cells through Induction of VLA-4 Expression

Fibronectin plays important roles in erythropoiesis through the fibronectin receptors VLA-4 and VLA-5. However, the substantial role of these fibronectin receptors and their functional assignment in erythroid differentiation are not yet fully understood. Here, we investigated the effects of cell adhesion to fibronectin on erythroid differentiation using K562 human erythroid progenitor cells. Erythroid differentiation could be induced in K562 cells in suspension by stimulating with hemin. This hemin-stimulated erythroid differentiation was highly accelerated when cells were induced to adhere to fibronectin by treatment with TNIIIA2, a peptide derived from tenascin-C, which has recently been found to induce β1-integrin activation. Another integrin activator, Mn²⁺, also accelerated hemin-stimulated erythroid differentiation. Adhesive interaction with fibronectin via VLA-4 as well as VLA-5 was responsible for acceleration of the hemin-stimulated erythroid differentiation in response to TNIIIA2, although K562 cells should have been lacking in VLA-4. Adhesion to fibronectin forced by TNIIIA2 causally induced VLA-4 expression in K562 cells, and this was blocked by the RGD peptide, an antagonist for VLA-5. The resulting adhesive interaction with fibronectin via VLA-4 strongly enhanced the hemin-stimulated activation of p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase, which was shown to serve as a signaling molecule crucial for erythroid differentiation. Suppression of VLA-4 expression by RNA interference abrogated acceleration of hemin-stimulated erythroid differentiation in response to TNIIIA2. Thus, VLA-4 and VLA-5 may contribute to erythropoiesis at different stages of erythroid differentiation.Hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells proliferate and differentiate in the bone marrow and fetal liver (1–6). Stromal cells of the bone marrow and fetal liver form a hematopoietic microenvironment called a “niche.” This microenvironment niche plays a crucial role in the regulation of the proliferation and differentiation of hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells. Besides humoral factors that include hematopoietic growth factors, adhesive interaction of hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells with stromal cells and/or the extracellular matrix (ECM)² in the hematopoietic microenvironment is indispensable for hematopoietic development (1–6). The ECM in the hematopoietic microenvironment is composed of various macromolecules, such as fibronectin (FN), collagens, laminins, and proteoglycans. Among them, FN is one of the most important parts of the microenvironment niche (7–11). Also, in erythropoiesis, the importance of the adhesion of erythroid progenitors to FN via the FN receptors VLA-4 and VLA-5 has been reported (11–16). However, the substantial role of these FN receptors and their functional assignment in erythroid differentiation are not yet fully understood.We previously found that FN, which provides scaffolding for the adhesion of various cell types, has an alternative functional site opposing cell adhesion (17). A 22-mer peptide derived from the 14th FN type III-like (FNIII) repeat of the FN molecule, termed FNIII14, strongly suppresses cell adhesion to FN by inhibiting the activation of β1-integrins including VLA-4 and VLA-5 (18, 19). Conversely, we have recently found that tenascin (TN)-C, which is an anti-adhesive ECM protein (20, 21), has a functional site for stimulating cell adhesion to FN (22). A 22-mer peptide derived from the FNIII repeat A2 in the TN-C molecule, termed TNIIIA2, can induce the conformational change necessary for functional activation of FN receptors through binding with syndecan-4 (22, 23). The active sites of FNIII14 and TNIIIA2 appear to be cryptic in the molecular structures of FN and TN-C but are exposed by conformational change through interaction with other ECM molecules or by processing with matrix metalloproteinase-2 (22, 24). Thus, these functional sites found in FN and TN-C molecules, which act in opposition to their parental ECM proteins, may act as a negative feedback loop for preventing excessive cellular responses to these ECM proteins in biological processes with ECM rearrangement. In any case, FNIII14 and TNIIIA2 enable us to control, either negatively or positively, the adhesion of various cell types to FN.Various hematopoietic progenitor cell lines have been used in in vitro studies of hematopoietic differentiation. However, most hematopoietic progenitor cell lines are nonadherent, because their cell surface β1-integrins, including FN receptors, have impaired ligand-binding activity (25, 26). Therefore, in order to investigate the role of cell adhesion to FN in hematopoietic differentiation, their FN receptors must be activated. Since TNIIIA2 can induce activation of FN receptors in various hematopoietic progenitor cell lines (22), this peptide factor may be useful for investigating the substantial role of cell adhesion to FN in hematopoietic differentiation. Here, we investigate the effects of cell adhesion to FN on erythroid differentiation using TNIIIA2 and Mn²⁺ as the integrin activator and the human erythroid progenitor cell line K562, which only expresses VLA-5, as the FN receptor (27). As a result, we show that hemin-stimulated erythroid differentiation of K562 cells is strongly enhanced when K562 cells are forced to adhere to FN. Sustained adhesion to FN via VLA-5, which is induced by TNIIIA2 or Mn²⁺, causes induction of VLA-4 expression. The resulting adhesive interaction with FN via newly expressed VLA-4 then generates a conspicuous increase in the hemin-stimulated phosphorylation/activation of p38 MAP kinase, which is shown to serve as a signaling molecule crucial for erythroid differentiation of K562 cells.     

RNAi干扰Shp2基因对K562细胞增殖的抑制效应

通过RNA干扰技术沉默蛋白酪氨酸磷酸酶跏2基因,构建重纽质粒,采用实时荧光定量PCR（Real-timePCR）法、Westernblot、MTT法、流式细胞术（FCM）分别检测转染后K562细胞中bcr／abl融合基因、bcr／abl融合蛋白的表达水平、细胞生长增殖变化及细胞凋亡率,探索该基因的沉默表达对K562N胞的抑制作用。结果表明,该实验成功构建出能明显下调Shp2基因及其蛋白表达的重组质粒,转染K562细胞后,其bcr／abl融合基因及融合蛋白水平均明显降低、K562细胞增殖活力被抑制（P〈0．05）、细胞凋亡水平上升（P〈0．05）。与对照组相比,其差异具有统计学意义。提示,重组质粒可显著降低bcr／abl基因及蛋白的表达,抑制K562细胞的生物学效应,表明在细胞水平沉默Shp2有可能成为治疗慢性粒细胞白血病的有效靶点。     

与抑制K562细胞向红系分化相关的Attractin基因的分离和初步鉴定

应用差异显示PCR（DDRT-PCR）方法分离野生型K562细胞株和能表达人β－珠蛋白基因的变种K562细胞株的4个差异cDNA片段,序列测定后,挑选差异最明显的片段dd1,经过RT-PCR、Northern 印迹鉴定确实为两株细胞间的差异片段,测序后经同源性分析等,发现其所对应的基因是吸引素（Attractin,GenBank注册号AF106861）。 根据其结构预测,Attractin有可能是K562 细胞表面一个黏附因子受体,与抑制K562细胞向红系分化有关。 Abstract:Differential display PCR method was used to isolate four differential display fragments between the wild type K562 cell line and the variant type K562 cell line that expressed the human β-globin gene.After sequencing,the most remarkable different fragment,named dd1,was selected for further study.The analysis of RT-PCR and Northern blot hybridization showed that dd1 was exactly the differentiation fragment between the two cell lines.The homology analysis indicated that dd1 was matched to Attractin (GeneBank registration No.AF106861).It might be an adhesion receptor related to inhibiting erythroid differentiation based on its structure.     

OAZ1基因诱导慢粒白血病K562细胞向成熟红系方向分化

近年来,鸟氨酸脱羧酶抗酶(OAZ)作为肿瘤治疗的潜在靶点备受关注.本文研究了OAZ1基因过表达对慢粒白血病K562细胞红系分化的作用.构建框移位点突变的OAZ1 过表达慢病毒载体pLVX-Neo-OAZ1-IRES-ZsGreen,包装病毒并感染K562细胞, Western 印迹验证其过表达效果.FACS检测细胞分化标志物CD71和GPA,结合联苯胺染色分析细胞红系分化情况.对比氯化高铁血红素(hemin)诱导组,实时RT-PCR检测与K562细胞红系分化、癌变的关键基因(GATA1、BCR/ABL、TGFβ)转录水平,对OAZ1 诱导分化的机制进行初步探索.结果表明,慢病毒过表达载体及K562细胞过表达体系构建成功.OAZ1过表达后细胞红系分化标志物CD71+/GPA+为(11.22±2.09)%,与对照组(4.07±1.04)%、空病毒组(1.79±2.36)%相比差异极显著(P<0.01);联苯胺蓝染阳性率为(14.037±0.083)%,与对照组、空病毒组比较,差异也极显著(P<0.01).定 量分析结果提示,相对于GATA1、BCR/ABL 基因mRNA转录水平的影响,OAZ1对TGFβ 基因的作用更为明显.为此推断,OAZ1基因可诱导白血病K562细胞向成熟红系方向分化,其作用机制可能与TGFβ信号转导通路相关.     

Regulation of p38, PKC/Foxo3a/p73 Signaling Network by GTP During Erythroid Differentiation in Chronic Myelogenous Leukemia

It is well established that Foxo3a is a fundamental module of signal transduction pathways regulating erythropoiesis; however, precise mechanism which regulates its physiological function still remains unclear. Here, our results revealed that the nuclear localization and stability of Foxo3a were modulated by the physical interaction of PKC and p38 signaling elements and that direct interactions led to phosphorylation of threonine residue(s) in Foxo3a. In addition, our findings revealed that the sequential activity of Foxo3a by guanosine 5′-triphosphate can impede cellular proliferation and suppress p73 expression as oncoprotein in K562 cells; thus identifying Foxo3a as a tumor suppressor in these p53 null cells. However, down-regulation of Foxo3a-dependent p73 expression causes cell differentiation along the erythroid lineage. Collectively, our findings suggest that restoration of Foxo3a function by pharmacological agents under the influence of specific activated protein kinases might constitute a potential therapeutic strategy for combating the CML disease.     

胆固醇对K562及耐药株K562G细胞增殖及伊马替尼敏感性的影响

目的:探讨胆固醇对K562及耐药株K562G细胞增殖及伊马替尼(Imatinib,IM)敏感性的影响。方法:通过qRT-PCR方法检测K562和K562G细胞的胆固醇代谢途径相关蛋白的表达;以不同药物组合处理K562细胞、K562G细胞,采用CCK-8方法检测细胞增殖情况。结果:耐药K562G细胞胆固醇合成酶(人角鲨烯单加氧酶SQLE,细胞色素P450酶家族51亚家族A1 CYP51A1,固醇C5去饱和酶SC5D)表达下降、而低密度脂蛋白受体LDLR、固醇酰基转移酶SOAT1、ATP结合盒转运体A1 ABCA1表达量增加;0.5μg/m L、0.75μg/m L胆固醇处理K562细胞,其增殖率比对照组K562细胞分别增加(9.51±2.84)%和(19.88±3.00)%;使用阿托伐他汀(20μM)、GW3965 (20μM)、MβCD (10 m M)降低K562G细胞胆固醇使其增殖抑制率分别为(50.73±2.34)%,(49.42±1.13)%,(76.54±1.48)%;两种浓度胆固醇使IM处理的K562细胞增殖抑制率分别减少51.59%及53.80%;MβCD联合IM使K562及K562G细胞存活率分别降低至6.89%及23.34%。结论:IM抵抗的K562G细胞与IM敏感的K562细胞相比胆固醇代谢增强;增加胆固醇能够促进K562细胞增殖,降低细胞对IM的敏感性;MβCD可能通过降低胆固醇增强K562、K562G细胞对IM敏感性。     

Transferred BCR/ABL DNA from K562 Extracellular Vesicles Causes Chronic Myeloid Leukemia in Immunodeficient Mice

Our previous study showed that besides mRNAs and microRNAs, there are DNA fragments within extracellular vesicles (EVs). The BCR/ABL hybrid gene, involved in the pathogenesis of chronic myeloid leukemia (CML), could be transferred from K562 EVs to neutrophils and decrease their phagocytic activity in vitro. Our present study provides evidence that BCR/ABL DNAs transferred from EVs have pathophysiological significance in vivo. Two months after injection of K562 EVs into the tail vein of Sprague-Dawley (SD) rats, they showed some characteristics of CML, e.g., feeble, febrile, and thin, with splenomegaly and neutrophilia but with reduced neutrophil phagocytic activity. These findings were also observed in immunodeficient NOD/SCID mice treated with K562 EVs; BCR/ABL mRNA and protein were found in their neutrophils. The administration of actinomycin D, an inhibitor of de novo mRNA synthesis, prevented the abnormalities caused by K562 EVs in NOD/SCID mice related to CML, including neutrophilia and bone marrow hyperplasia. As a specific inhibitor of tyrosine kinases, imatinib blocked the activity of tyrosine kinases and the expression of phospho-Crkl, induced by the de novo BCR/ABL protein caused by K562 EVs bearing BCR/ABL DNA. Our current study shows the pathophysiological significance of transferred tumor gene from EVs in vivo, which may represent an important mechanism for tumorigenesis, tumor progression, and metastasis.     

Induction of Erythroid Differentiation of Human Leukemia K562 Cells by the Acyclic Nucleoside Phosphonate 9-(2-Phosphonylmethoxyethyl)adenine (PMEA)

Abstract

9-(2-Phosphonylmethoxyethyl)adenine (PMEA), the prototype compound of a well-defined structural class of potent and selective anti-retroviral agents, was found to be endowed with long-lasting and dose-dependent differentiation-inducing properties in human erythroleukemia K562 cell cultures.     

Oncogenic RAS Enables DNA Damage- and p53-Dependent Differentiation of Acute Myeloid Leukemia Cells in Response to Chemotherapy

Acute myeloid leukemia (AML) is a clonal disease originating from myeloid progenitor cells with a heterogeneous genetic background. High-dose cytarabine is used as the standard consolidation chemotherapy. Oncogenic RAS mutations are frequently observed in AML, and are associated with beneficial response to cytarabine. Why AML-patients with oncogenic RAS benefit most from high-dose cytarabine post-remission therapy is not well understood. Here we used bone marrow cells expressing a conditional MLL-ENL-ER oncogene to investigate the interaction of oncogenic RAS and chemotherapeutic agents. We show that oncogenic RAS synergizes with cytotoxic agents such as cytarabine in activation of DNA damage checkpoints, resulting in a p53-dependent genetic program that reduces clonogenicity and increases myeloid differentiation. Our data can explain the beneficial effects observed for AML patients with oncogenic RAS treated with higher dosages of cytarabine and suggest that induction of p53-dependent differentiation, e.g. by interfering with Mdm2-mediated degradation, may be a rational approach to increase cure rate in response to chemotherapy. The data also support the notion that the therapeutic success of cytotoxic drugs may depend on their ability to promote the differentiation of tumor-initiating cells.     

Phorbol12-Myristate13-Acetate Relieves the Inhibitory Effect of A23187 on Erythroid Differentiation of K562 Cells Induced by Dimethylsulfoxide

The differentiating effect of DMSO on K562 cells was studied against the background of pretreatment of the cells by the modulators of activities of protein kinase C and Ca signaling, phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate, and ionophore A23187. The 2-hour pretreatment of K562 cells with A23187 (1 M), rather than phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate (0.1 M), led to inhibition of the differentiating effect of DMSO (0.1%) during the subsequent four days of incubation. When the cells were pretreated jointly with A23187 and phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate, the DMSO-induced erythroid differentiation was restored. Analysis of the DNA-degrading effect of the reagents used on K562 cells by fluorescent dyes under the same conditions suggests that this activity is induced in the presence of DMSO in the cells pretreated with a combination of phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate and A23187 or without pretreatment.     

Loss of Atrx Sensitizes Cells to DNA Damaging Agents through p53-Mediated Death Pathways

Prevalent cell death in forebrain- and Sertoli cell-specific Atrx knockout mice suggest that Atrx is important for cell survival. However, conditional ablation in other tissues is not associated with increased death indicating that diverse cell types respond differently to the loss of this chromatin remodeling protein. Here, primary macrophages isolated from Atrx ^f/f mice were infected with adenovirus expressing Cre recombinase or β-galactosidase, and assayed for cell survival under different experimental conditions. Macrophages survive without Atrx but undergo rapid apoptosis upon lipopolysaccharide (LPS) activation suggesting that chromatin reorganization in response to external stimuli is compromised. Using this system we next tested the effect of different apoptotic stimuli on cell survival. We observed that survival of Atrx-null cells were similar to wild type cells in response to serum withdrawal, anti-Fas antibody, C2 ceramide or dexamethasone treatment but were more sensitive to 5-fluorouracil (5-FU). Cell survival could be rescued by re-introducing Atrx or by removal of p53 demonstrating the cell autonomous nature of the effect and its p53-dependence. Finally, we demonstrate that multiple primary cell types (myoblasts, embryonic fibroblasts and neurospheres) were sensitive to 5-FU, cisplatin, and UV light treatment. Together, our results suggest that cells lacking Atrx are more sensitive to DNA damaging agents and that this may result in enhanced death during development when cells are at their proliferative peak. Moreover, it identifies potential treatment options for cancers associated with ATRX mutations, including glioblastoma and pancreatic neuroendocrine tumors.