Spatial analysis of species richness of shrews (Soricomorpha: Soricidae) in North America north of Mexico

We used geographic ranges of North American shrews and environmental data to better understand spatial distribution of species richness in the Soricidae. Richness was examined as a function of latitude and longitude and was compared with climatic variables at random points (≥90 km apart). Latitudinal trend in richness was parabolic with a maximum near 48°N, consistent with the general hypothesis that diversity is limited by energy to the north and by moisture to the south. Precipitation, snowfall, and July heating degree days were positively related to shrew richness. Richness of North American Soricidae was high in areas where topographic relief allowed for a variety of forested habitats and precipitation was high, such as the Southern Appalachians and Pacific Northwest. This broad, geographic study supports the idea that environmental moisture importantly limits distributions of shrews, which has been     

美国酿酒葡萄品种在北京地区的生长和适应性表现

调查研究了首次引进的13个美国酿酒葡萄品种在北京地区栽培后的植物学性状、果实品质和抗寒及抗霜霉病能力,并与传统的欧亚种酿酒葡萄及砧木品种进行了比较与分析,总结了它们之间的植物学性状与抗逆性的差异。本试验选出了在抗寒及抗霜霉病方面表现优良的美国酿酒葡萄品种,为这些品种在我国的实际栽培推广提供科学依据。     

Wine,geology mapping and the value of place in McLaren Vale

In the wine‐producing region of McLaren Vale, South Australia, the development of a detailed geology map has worked to increase understandings about the physical diversity of vineyard land. I argue that the production and deployment of social/scientific knowledge through the map is instrumental in strategic imaginings of the viticultural space of McLaren Vale. Ethnographic examination of ‘District Tastings’ of single‐vineyard Shiraz wines shows how the geology map provides a framework for understanding and promoting relationships between vineyard geology and wine flavours. This process feeds into debates over possible delineation of official winemaking ‘subregions’, which may provide a mechanism for the generation of economic value based on discourses of quality and distinctiveness. The map's depiction of geological diversity is embraced by wine producers, who seek to add value to their product through appeals to a purported uniqueness, scarcity or specialness based on geological terroir.     

中国欧亚种酿酒葡萄种植分布的主要气候影响因子与气候适宜性

开展酿酒葡萄气候适宜性研究对于优化酿酒葡萄布局、气候资源开发利用具有重要意义。基于欧亚种酿酒葡萄(Vitis vinifera L.)分布数据和影响其分布的气候因子,利用最大熵模型(MaxEnt)和地理信息系统(ArcGIS),研究影响欧亚种酿酒葡萄种植分布的主导气候因子及其气候适宜性。结果表明:MaxEnt模型能够很好地模拟我国欧亚种酿酒葡萄的潜在分布,模拟效果达到"非常好"(AUC平均值0.936)的水平。基于气候因子对欧亚种酿酒葡萄地理分布影响的贡献确定了主导气候因子,即无霜期、干燥度、极端最低气温、年降水量、生长季日照时数、≥10℃活动积温。当前,我国欧亚种酿酒葡萄种植分布的气候高适宜区、适宜区、次适宜区分别占次适宜及以上区域总面积的2.9%、20.4%和76.7%。欧亚种酿酒葡萄气候高适宜区主要分布在宁夏、山西、陕西、内蒙古、山东、河北、新疆、甘肃等省,只考虑气候因子,陕西、山西、内蒙古具有较大的发展空间。     

The application of GIS and spatiotemporal analyses to investigations of unusual marine mammal strandings and mortality events

In 2006–2007, an unusually high number of harbor porpoises (Phocoena phocoena) stranded along the Washington and Oregon coastlines. Spatiotemporal analyses were used to examine their ability to detect clusters of porpoise strandings during an unusual mortality event (UME) in the Pacific Northwest using stranding location data. Strandings were evaluated as two separate populations, outer coast and inland waters. The presence of global clustering was evaluated using the Knox spatiotemporal test, and the presence of local clusters was investigated using a spatiotemporal scan statistic (space–time permutation). There was evidence of global clustering, but no local clustering, supporting the hypothesis that strandings were due to more varied etiologies instead of localized causes. Further analyses at subregional levels, and concurrently assessing environmental factors, might reveal additional geographic distribution patterns. This article describes the spatial analytical tools applied in this study and how they can help elucidate the spatiotemporal epidemiology of other UMEs and assist in determining their causes. More than one spatial analytical technique should be used if the study objective is to detect and describe clustering in time and space and to generate hypotheses regarding causation of marine mammal disease and stranding events.     

The impact of the species-area relationship on estimates of paleodiversity

Estimates of paleodiversity patterns through time have relied on datasets that lump taxonomic occurrences from geographic areas of varying size per interval of time. In essence, such estimates assume that the species–area effect, whereby more species are recorded from larger geographic areas, is negligible for fossil data. We tested this assumption by using the newly developed Miocene Mammal Mapping Project database of western North American fossil mammals and its associated analysis tools to empirically determine the geographic area that contributed to species diversity counts in successive temporal bins. The results indicate that a species–area effect markedly influences counts of fossil species, just as variable spatial sampling influences diversity counts on the modern landscape. Removing this bias suggests some traditionally recognized peaks in paleodiversity are just artifacts of the species–area effect while others stand out as meriting further attention. This discovery means that there is great potential for refining existing time-series estimates of paleodiversity, and for using species–area relationships to more reliably understand the magnitude and timing of such biotically important events as extinction, lineage diversification, and long-term trends in ecological structure.     

The Impact of the Species–Area Relationship on Estimates of Paleodiversity

Estimates of paleodiversity patterns through time have relied on datasets that lump taxonomic occurrences from geographic areas of varying size per interval of time. In essence, such estimates assume that the species–area effect, whereby more species are recorded from larger geographic areas, is negligible for fossil data. We tested this assumption by using the newly developed Miocene Mammal Mapping Project database of western North American fossil mammals and its associated analysis tools to empirically determine the geographic area that contributed to species diversity counts in successive temporal bins. The results indicate that a species–area effect markedly influences counts of fossil species, just as variable spatial sampling influences diversity counts on the modern landscape. Removing this bias suggests some traditionally recognized peaks in paleodiversity are just artifacts of the species–area effect while others stand out as meriting further attention. This discovery means that there is great potential for refining existing time-series estimates of paleodiversity, and for using species–area relationships to more reliably understand the magnitude and timing of such biotically important events as extinction, lineage diversification, and long-term trends in ecological structure.     

Patterns of Admixture and Population Structure in Native Populations of Northwest North America

The initial contact of European populations with indigenous populations of the Americas produced diverse admixture processes across North, Central, and South America. Recent studies have examined the genetic structure of indigenous populations of Latin America and the Caribbean and their admixed descendants, reporting on the genomic impact of the history of admixture with colonizing populations of European and African ancestry. However, relatively little genomic research has been conducted on admixture in indigenous North American populations. In this study, we analyze genomic data at 475,109 single-nucleotide polymorphisms sampled in indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest in British Columbia and Southeast Alaska, populations with a well-documented history of contact with European and Asian traders, fishermen, and contract laborers. We find that the indigenous populations of the Pacific Northwest have higher gene diversity than Latin American indigenous populations. Among the Pacific Northwest populations, interior groups provide more evidence for East Asian admixture, whereas coastal groups have higher levels of European admixture. In contrast with many Latin American indigenous populations, the variance of admixture is high in each of the Pacific Northwest indigenous populations, as expected for recent and ongoing admixture processes. The results reveal some similarities but notable differences between admixture patterns in the Pacific Northwest and those in Latin America, contributing to a more detailed understanding of the genomic consequences of European colonization events throughout the Americas.     

Minimum data requirements for designing a set of marine protected areas, using commonly available abiotic and biotic datasets

Marine protected areas (MPAs) can be an effective tool for marine biodiversity conservation, yet decision-makers usually have limited and biased datasets with which to make decisions about where to locate MPAs. Using commonly available abiotic and biotic datasets, I asked how many datasets are necessary to achieve robust patterns of conservation importance. I applied a decision support tool for marine protected area design in two regions of British Columbia, Canada, and sequentially excluded the datasets with the most limited geographic distribution. I found that the reserve selection method was robust to some missing datasets. The removal of up to 15 of the most geographically limited datasets did not significantly change the geographic patterns of the importance of areas for conservation. Indeed, including abiotic datasets plus at least 12 biotic datasets resulted in a spatial pattern similar to including all available biotic datasets. It was best to combine abiotic and biotic datasets in order to ensure habitats and species were represented. Patterns of clustering differed according to whether I used one set alone or both combined. Biotic datasets served as better surrogates for abiotic datasets than vice versa, and both represented more biodiversity features than randomly selected reserves. These results should provide encouragement to decision-makers engaged in MPA planning with limited spatial data.     

Species-wide phylogeography of North American mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus): cryptic glacial refugia and postglacial recolonization

Quaternary climatic oscillations greatly influenced the present-day population genetic structure of animals and plants. For species with high dispersal and reproductive potential, phylogeographic patterns resulting from historical processes can be cryptic, overshadowed by contemporary processes. Here we report a study of the phylogeography of Odocoileus hemionus , a large, vagile ungulate common throughout western North America. We examined sequence variation of mitochondrial DNA (control region and cytochrome b ) within and among 70 natural populations across the entire range of the species. Among the 1766 individual animals surveyed, we recovered 496 haplotypes. Although fine-scale phylogenetic structure was weakly resolved using phylogenetic methods, network analysis clearly revealed the presence of 12 distinct haplogroups. The spatial distribution of haplogroups showed a strong genetic discontinuity between the two morphological types of O. hemionus , mule deer and black-tailed deer, east and west of the Cascade Mountains in the Pacific Northwest. Within the mule deer lineage, we identified several haplogroups that expanded before or during the Last Glacial Maximum, suggesting that mule deer persisted in multiple refugia south of the ice sheets. Patterns of genetic diversity within the black-tailed deer lineage suggest a single refugium along the Pacific Northwest coast, and refute the hypothesis that black-tailed deer persisted in one or more northern refugia. Our data suggest that black-tailed deer recolonized areas in accordance with the pattern of glacial retreat, with initial recolonization northward along a coastal route and secondary recolonization inland.     

Dragging into the open: the polythetic nature of areas of endemism

Areas of endemism represent territories (no matter the size) of non-random overlap in the geographic distribution of two or more taxa, reflecting a common spatial history of these taxa. The common spatial history is a result of different processes that connect areas of endemism to evolutionary theory. Numerous and diverse definitions of areas of endemism have been proposed. All of them have used as the conceptual foundation of the definition a certain degree of non-random congruence of geographic distribution amongst at least two taxa. ‘Certain degree’ means that geographic congruence does not demand complete agreement on the boundaries of those taxa's distributions at all possible scales of mapping. The words ‘certain degree’ mask the polythetic nature of areas of endemism. The polythetic characterization of areas of endemism implies that each locality of the study area has a large number of a set of species. Each species of this set is present in many of those localities and, generally, none of those species is present in every locality of the area. The converse will be a monothetic nature of areas of endemism where a taxon or group of taxa is present in all the localities of the study area. We propose here that the expansion of the definition of areas of endemism, including their polythetic characterization, will improve understanding of large biogeographic areas such as realms, regions, provinces, and districts, and will increase the scientific content (e.g., predictive capability and explanatory power) of areas of endemism.     

Molecular systematics of short-horned lizards: biogeography and taxonomy of a widespread species complex

We surveyed mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) sequence variation in short-horned lizards (Phrynosoma douglasi) from throughout western North America and used these data to estimate an intraspecific phylogeny and to assess biogeographic scenarios underlying the geographic structure of lineages in this species. We sequenced 783 base pairs from 38 populations of P. douglasi and three putative outgroups (P. ditmarsi, P. orbiculare, P. platyrhinos). We detected high levels of nucleotide variation among populations and a spatial distribution of mtDNA lineages compatible with major geographic regions. The phylogenetic hypotheses best supported by the data suggest that P. douglasi, as currently described, is paraphyletic with respect to P. ditmarsi. Populations of P. douglasi from the Pacific Northwest (ID, CA, OR, WA) form a monophyletic group that is sister to the subsequent radiation of P. ditmarsi and other P. douglasi clades. These results suggest that divergences within this widespread species are fairly old. We focused on the genetic structure of populations of P. douglasi from a geographic perspective and interpreted the intraspecific phylogeny in light of geologic and climatic changes in western North America during the last 20 million years. The generally high levels of genetic variation found in these population comparisons are in accord with high levels of morphological variation in this species group; however, only in the Pacific Northwest region is there spatial congruence between these phylogenetic results and subspecific ranges based on previous morphological studies. We compared the evolutionary units delineated in this study with previously described subspecies of P. douglasi and evaluated the support (from morphology and mtDNA) for each population lineage in the phylogeny and the implications for the taxonomy of this group.     

Biogeographic and phylogenetic patterns in diversity of liverwort-associated endophytes

Liverworts harbor diverse fungi, including endophytes, in their healthy tissues. To address whether patterns of endophyte diversity are correlated with host phylogeny or geography, we designed a broad geographic survey with controlled phylogenetic host sampling. We collected liverworts in North Carolina, Washington, Idaho, British Columbia, Germany, and New Zealand and identified endophytes using culture-based and molecular methods. Of the major lineages of filamentous ascomycetes recovered, 53-88% belonged to the Xylariales. Endophyte accumulation curves did not saturate, and singleton sequences were dominant in each region, suggesting that liverwort endophyte communities are diverse. There was no significant difference in species richness between regional endophyte communities; however, total richness estimators indicated that North Carolina and New Zealand have richer communities than do Germany and the Pacific Northwest. This pattern reflects lower per-host endophyte density and prevalence of a common, shared sequence group in Germany and the Pacific Northwest. Although species richness was relatively low in the Pacific Northwest, the greatest phylogenetic diversity of endophytes was recovered there. Tests for regional and host specificity revealed that endophyte floras of hosts within a geographic area are more similar to one another than to those of closely related hosts. Geographic distance, not host phylogeny, best explains differences among communities.     

Soil Types Effect on Grape and Wine Composition in Helan Mountain Area of Ningxia

Different soil types can significantly affect the composition of wine grapes and the final wine product. In this study, the effects of soil types on the composition of Cabernet Sauvignon grapes and wine produced in the Helan Mountains were evaluated. Three different representative soil types—aeolian, sierozem and irrigation silting soil were studied. The compositions of grapes and wines were measured, and in addition, the weights of 100-berry samples were determined. The grapes that grown on the aeolian and sierozem soils matured sooner than those grown on the irrigation silting soil. The highest sugar content, total soluble solids content, sugar to acid ratio and anthocyanin content were found in the grapes that grown on the aeolian soil. The wine produced from this soil had improved chroma and tone and higher-quality phenols. The grapes grown on the sierozem soil had the highest total phenol and tannin contents, which affected the wine composition. The grapes grown on the irrigation silting soil had higher acidities, but the remaining indices were lower. In addition, the grapes grown on the aeolian soil resulted in wines with better chroma and aroma. The sierozem soil was beneficial for the formation of wine tannins and phenols and significantly affected the wine composition. The quality of the grapes from the irrigation silting soil was relatively low, resulting in lower-quality wine.     

Inferring biogeographic history from molecular phylogenies

The present study illustrates a method for analysing the biogeography of a group that is based on the group's phylogeny but does not invoke founder dispersal or centre of origin. The case studies presented include groups from many different parts of the world, but most are from the south‐west Pacific. The idea that basal groups are ancestral is not valid as a generalization. Neither the basal group, nor the oldest fossil represents the centre of origin, the time of origin or the ancestral ecology. Basal groups comprise less diverse sister groups and their distributions occur around centres of differentiation in already widespread ancestors, and not centres of origin for the whole group. Thus, the sequence of nodes in a phylogeny may indicate the spatial sequence of differentiation in a widespread ancestor rather than a series of founder dispersal events. Allocation of clades to a priori geographic areas, such as the continents, in the initial stages of biogeographic analysis has often involved incorrect assumptions of sympatry. This has led to the idea that the ‘areas of sympatry’ were centres of origin. Areas other than those defined by the taxa themselves need not be used in analysis. The fossil‐calibrated molecular clock, with dates transmogrified from minimum to maximum dates, has been used to test for vicariance. Recent work in population genetics, however, indicates that allopatry is caused by vicariance rather than founder dispersal, and so vicariance can instead be used to test the clock. Deriving evolutionary chronology by calibrating spatial vicariance in molecular clades with associated tectonic events is more reasonable than relying on the fossil record to give maximum (absolute) dates. © 2009 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2009, 98 , 757–774.     

An Atlantic infaunal engineer is established in the Northeast Pacific: <Emphasis Type="Italic">Clymenella torquata</Emphasis> (Polychaeta: Maldanidae) on the British Columbia and Washington Coasts

The Northwest Atlantic bamboo worm Clymenella torquata, believed to have been imported with commercial oyster culture, was last formally reported from the American Pacific coast more than 30 years ago from a single location. We report here that it is broadly distributed in British Columbia and is now established in Washington. In Samish Bay, Washington, this tubiculous infaunal worm creates a spongy, porous substrate that has proved detrimental to commercial oyster farms by causing the oysters to sink into the sediment and suffocate. Little is known about the ecological or economic impacts of this invasion in the Pacific Northwest.     

Susceptibility of table grape varieties grown in south‐eastern Italy to Drosophila suzukii

Since 2008, Drosophila suzukii, the spotted wing drosophila, has colonized most of the American and European continents, being able to adapt to very different climates. In Italy, this pest has been captured from northern Alpine to southern Mediterranean regions where it can infest a broad range of fruits, including wine grapes. Studies have shown that oviposition levels and developmental rates of D. suzukii on wine grapes are lower than on other berries, although recent observations indicate that grapes may become a suitable host plant in particular conditions. Here, we report, for the first time, the results of a series of no‐choice oviposition experiments using berries of five table grape varieties sampled in the provinces of Taranto and Bari (Apulia region, south‐eastern Italy) during 2013 from both organic and conventional farming systems. The sugar content (SC) and skin hardness of each sample were analysed to assess the influence of these physiological parameters on the susceptibility of table grapes to D. suzukii infestation. A negative correlation was found between the number of eggs laid and berry skin penetration force, whereas there was a positive one between the number of eggs and Brix values, as well as sampling date. In organic grapes, SC and skin hardness of two varieties (“Crimson” and “Scarlotta”) were measured, respectively, higher and lower than in conventional grapes, thus making them more susceptible to pest infestation. The study hence shows that in laboratory conditions D. suzukii is able to heavily infest and develop on table grapes and that susceptibility to its infestation significantly depends on both variety and farming system.