The Effects of Co-transplantation of Olfactory Ensheathing Cells and Schwann Cells on Local Inflammation Environment in the Contused Spinal Cord of Rats

Inflammatory response following spinal cord injury (SCI) is important in regulation of the repair process. Olfactory ensheathing cells (OECs) and Schwann cells (SCs) are important donor cells for repairing SCI in different animal models. However, synergistic or complementary effects of co-transplantation of both cells for this purpose have not been extensively investigated. In the present study, we investigated the effects of co-transplantation of OECs and SCs on expression of pro- or anti-inflammatory factor and polarization of macrophages in the injured spinal cord of rats. Mixed cell suspensions containing OECs and SCs were transplanted into the injured site at 7 days after contusion at the vertebral T10 level. Compared with the DMEM, SC, or OEC group, the co-transplantation group had a more extensive distribution of the grafted cells and significantly reduced number of astrocytes, microglia/macrophage infiltration, and expression of chemokines (CCL2 and CCL3) at the injured site. The co-transplantation group also significantly increased arginase⁺/CD206⁺ macrophages (IL-4) and decreased iNOS⁺/CD16/32⁺ macrophages (IFN-γ), which was followed by higher IL-10 and IL-13 and lower IL-6 and TNF-α in their expression levels, a smaller cystic cavity area, and improved motor functions. These results indicate that OEC and SC co-transplantation could promote the shift of the macrophage phenotype from M(IFN-γ) to M(IL-4), reduce inflammatory cell infiltration in the injured site, and regulate inflammatory factors and chemokine expression, which provide a better immune environment for SCI repair.     

嗅球成鞘细胞的分离培养与鉴定

目的:探讨一种获取高纯度嗅球成鞘细胞(olfactory ensheathing cells,OECs)的方法.方法:从新生SD大鼠(3d)嗅球中迅速分离嗅神经层和嗅颗粒层,采用酶消化法分离细胞,差速贴壁法纯化细胞,接种于多聚赖氨酸包被的培养板内培养2d,采用NGFRp75和S100蛋白双标免疫组化、以Hoechst33342复染鉴定OECs的纯度.结果:OECs的纯度为(95.64±2.76)%.结论:本法是一种相对简便易行且经济、稳定、有效的OECs分离方法.     

Electrophysiological Characterisation of Human Umbilical Cord Blood-Derived Mesenchymal Stem Cells Induced by Olfactory Ensheathing Cell-Conditioned Medium

Umbilical cord blood-derived marrow stromal cells (UCB-MSCs) with high proliferation capacity and immunomodulatory properties are considered to be a good candidate for cell-based therapies. But until now, little work has been focused on the differentiation of UCB-MSCs. In this work, UCB-MSCs were demonstrated to be negative for CD34 and CD45 expression but positive for CD90 and CD105 expression. The gate values of UCB-MSCs for CD90 and CD105 were 99.3 and 98.6 %, respectively. Two weeks after treatment, the percentage of neuron-like cells differentiated from UCB-MSCs was increased to 84 ± 12 % in the experimental group [treated with olfactory ensheathing cells (OECs)-conditioned medium] and they were neuron-specific enolase positive; few neuron-like cells were found in the control group (without OECs-conditioned medium). Using whole-cell recording, sodium and potassium currents were recorded in UCB-MSCs after differentiation by OECs. Thus, human UCB-MSCs could be differentiated to neural cells by secreted secretion from OECs and exhibited electrophysiological properties similar to mature neurons after 2 weeks post-induction. These results imply that OECs can be used as a new strategy for stem cell differentiation and provide an alternative neurogenesis pathway for generating sufficient numbers of neural cells for cell therapy.     

嗅鞘细胞的不同纯化方法及结果

培养的嗅鞘细胞的最终纯度受到多种因素的影响,如嗅鞘细胞的取材来源、分离方法等等;对培养的嗅鞘细胞进行纯化可获得高纯度的嗅鞘细胞。纯化嗅鞘细胞的方法有许多种,主要有单纯差速贴壁法、免疫吸附法、化学药物抑制法、无血清饥饿法等,现在的实验研究更趋向于以上2-3种方法联合应用对嗅鞘细胞进行纯化,这些联合纯化方案主要是在采用单纯差速贴壁方法的基础上再次运用其他一种或几种方法进行嗅鞘细胞的纯化。就获取的嗅鞘细胞的最终纯度而言,许多方法取得了可观的效果。但不同的纯化方法各有利弊,除了价格不同外,不同的纯化方法对嗅鞘细胞的生物活性造成不同程度的影响。因此在选择纯化方法时,应综合考虑各方面因素,根据研究目的和实际需要选择合理的方案进行纯化。本文通过查阅各数据库中与嗅鞘细胞的分离培养及纯化有关的文献和其他相关书籍,来探讨纯化嗅鞘细胞的不同方法以及这些纯化方法对嗅鞘细胞最终纯度的影响。     

Bone Marrow Stem Cells and Polymer Hydrogels—Two Strategies for Spinal Cord Injury Repair

Summary 1. Emerging clinical studies of treating brain and spinal cord injury (SCI) led us to examine the effect of autologous adult stem cell transplantation as well as the use of polymer scaffolds in spinal cord regeneration. We compared an intravenous injection of mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) or the injection of a freshly prepared mononuclear fraction of bone marrow cells (BMCs) on the treatment of an acute or chronic balloon-induced spinal cord compression lesion in rats. Based on our experimental studies, autologous BMC implantation has been used in a Phase I/II clinical trial in patients (n=20) with a transversal spinal cord lesion.2. MSCs were isolated from rat bone marrow by their adherence to plastic, labeled with iron-oxide nanoparticles and expanded in vitro. Macroporous hydrogels based on derivatives of 2-hydroxyethyl methacrylate (HEMA) or 2-hydroxypropyl methacrylamide (HPMA) were prepared, then modified by their copolymerization with a hydrolytically degradable crosslinker, N,O-dimethacryloylhydroxylamine, or by different surface electric charges. Hydrogels or hydrogels seeded with MSCs were implanted into rats with hemisected spinal cords.3. Lesioned animals grafted with MSCs or BMCs had smaller lesions 35 days postgrafting and higher scores in BBB testing than did control animals and also showed a faster recovery of sensitivity in their hind limbs using the plantar test. The functional improvement was more pronounced in MSC-treated rats. In MR images, the lesion populated by grafted cells appeared as a dark hypointense area and was considerably smaller than in control animals. Morphometric measurements showed an increase in the volume of spared white matter in cell-treated animals. In the clinical trial, we compared intraarterial (via a. vertebralis, n=6) versus intravenous administration of BMCs (n=14) in a group of subacute (10–33 days post-SCI, n=8) and chronic patients (2–18 months, n=12). For patient follow-up we used MEP, SEP, MRI, and the ASIA score. Our clinical study revealed that the implantation of BMCs into patients is safe, as there were no complications following cell administration. Partial improvement in the ASIA score and partial recovery of MEP or SEP have been observed in all subacute patients who received cells via a. vertebralis (n=4) and in one out of four subacute patients who received cells intravenously. Improvement was also found in one chronic patient who received cells via a. vertebralis. A much larger population of patients is needed before any conclusions can be drawn. The implantation of hydrogels into hemisected rat spinal cords showed that cellular ingrowth was most pronounced in copolymers of HEMA with a positive surface electric charge. Although most of the cells had the morphological properties of connective tissue elements, we found NF-160-positive axons invading all the implanted hydrogels from both the proximal and distal stumps. The biodegradable hydrogels degraded from the border that was in direct contact with the spinal cord tissue. They were resorbed by macrophages and replaced by newly formed tissue containing connective tissue elements, blood vessels, GFAP-positive astrocytic processes, and NF-160-positive neurofilaments. Additionally, we implanted hydrogels seeded with nanoparticle-labeled MSCs into hemisected rat spinal cords. Hydrogels seeded with MSCs were visible on MR images as hypointense areas, and subsequent Prussian blue histological staining confirmed positively stained cells within the hydrogels.4. We conclude that treatment with different bone marrow cell populations had a positive effect on behavioral outcome and histopathological assessment after SCI in rats; this positive effect was most pronounced following MSC treatment. Our clinical study suggests a possible positive effect in patients with SCI. Bridging the lesion cavity can be an approach for further improving regeneration. Our preclinical studies showed that macroporous polymer hydrogels based on derivatives of HEMA or HPMA are suitable materials for bridging cavities after SCI; their chemical and physical properties can be modified to a specific use, and 3D implants seeded with different cell types may facilitate the ingrowth of axons.     

Convergence of Cells from the Progenitor Fraction of Adult Olfactory Bulb Tissue to Remyelinating Glia in Demyelinating Spinal Cord Lesions

Background

Progenitor cells isolated from adult brain tissue are important tools for experimental studies of remyelination. Cells harvested from neurogenic regions in the adult brain such as the subependymal zone have demonstrated remyelination potential. Multipotent cells from the progenitor fraction have been isolated from the adult olfactory bulb (OB) but their potential to remyelinate has not been studied.

Methodology/Principal Findings

We used the buoyant density gradient centrifugation method to isolate the progenitor fraction and harvest self-renewing multipotent neural cells grown in monolayers from the adult green-fluorescent protein (GFP) transgenic rat OB. OB tissue was mechanically and chemically dissociated and the resultant cell suspension fractionated on a Percoll gradient. The progenitor fraction was isolated and these cells were plated in growth media with serum for 24 hrs. Cells were then propagated in N2 supplemented serum-free media containing b-FGF. Cells at passage 4 (P4) were introduced into a demyelinated spinal cord lesion. The GFP⁺ cells survived and integrated into the lesion, and extensive remyelination was observed in plastic sections. Immunohistochemistry revealed GFP⁺ cells in the spinal cord to be glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP), neuronal nuclei (NeuN), and neurofilament negative. The GFP⁺ cells were found among primarily P0⁺ myelin profiles, although some myelin basic protein (MBP) profiles were present. Immuno-electron microscopy for GFP revealed GFP⁺ cell bodies adjacent to and surrounding peripheral-type myelin rings.

Conclusions/Significance

We report that neural cells from the progenitor fraction of the adult rat OB grown in monolayers can be expanded for several passages in culture and that upon transplantation into a demyelinated spinal cord lesion provide extensive remyelination without ectopic neuronal differentiation.     

Low-Dose Curcumin Stimulates Proliferation,Migration and Phagocytic Activity of Olfactory Ensheathing Cells

One of the promising strategies for neural repair therapies is the transplantation of olfactory ensheathing cells (OECs) which are the glial cells of the olfactory system. We evaluated the effects of curcumin on the behaviour of mouse OECs to determine if it could be of use to further enhance the therapeutic potential of OECs. Curcumin, a natural polyphenol compound found in the spice turmeric, is known for its anti-cancer properties at doses over 10 µM, and often at 50 µM, and it exerts its effects on cancer cells in part by activation of MAP kinases. In contrast, we found that low-dose curcumin (0.5 µM) applied to OECs strikingly modulated the dynamic morphology, increased the rate of migration by up to 4-fold, and promoted significant proliferation of the OECs. Most dramatically, low-dose curcumin stimulated a 10-fold increase in the phagocytic activity of OECs. All of these potently stimulated behavioural characteristics of OECs are favourable for neural repair therapies. Importantly, low-dose curcumin gave a transient activation of p38 kinases, which is in contrast to the high dose curcumin effects on cancer cells in which these MAP kinases tend to undergo prolonged activation. Low-dose curcumin mediated effects on OECs demonstrate cell-type specific stimulation of p38 and ERK kinases. These results constitute the first evidence that low-dose curcumin can modulate the behaviour of olfactory glia into a phenotype potentially more favourable for neural repair and thereby improve the therapeutic use of OECs for neural repair therapies.     

Transplantation of Olfactory Ensheathing Cells to Evaluate Functional Recovery after Peripheral Nerve Injury

Olfactory ensheathing cells (OECs) are neural crest cells which allow growth and regrowth of the primary olfactory neurons. Indeed, the primary olfactory system is characterized by its ability to give rise to new neurons even in adult animals. This particular ability is partly due to the presence of OECs which create a favorable microenvironment for neurogenesis. This property of OECs has been used for cellular transplantation such as in spinal cord injury models. Although the peripheral nervous system has a greater capacity to regenerate after nerve injury than the central nervous system, complete sections induce misrouting during axonal regrowth in particular after facial of laryngeal nerve transection. Specifically, full sectioning of the recurrent laryngeal nerve (RLN) induces aberrant axonal regrowth resulting in synkinesis of the vocal cords. In this specific model, we showed that OECs transplantation efficiently increases axonal regrowth.OECs are constituted of several subpopulations present in both the olfactory mucosa (OM-OECs) and the olfactory bulbs (OB-OECs). We present here a model of cellular transplantation based on the use of these different subpopulations of OECs in a RLN injury model. Using this paradigm, primary cultures of OB-OECs and OM-OECs were transplanted in Matrigel after section and anastomosis of the RLN. Two months after surgery, we evaluated transplanted animals by complementary analyses based on videolaryngoscopy, electromyography (EMG), and histological studies. First, videolaryngoscopy allowed us to evaluate laryngeal functions, in particular muscular cocontractions phenomena. Then, EMG analyses demonstrated richness and synchronization of muscular activities. Finally, histological studies based on toluidine blue staining allowed the quantification of the number and profile of myelinated fibers.All together, we describe here how to isolate, culture, identify and transplant OECs from OM and OB after RLN section-anastomosis and how to evaluate and analyze the efficiency of these transplanted cells on axonal regrowth and laryngeal functions.     

One-Dimensional Migration of Olfactory Ensheathing Cells on Synthetic Materials: Experimental and Numerical Characterization

Olfactory ensheathing cells (OECs) are of great interest for regenerative purposes since they are believed to aid axonal growth. With the view set on the strategies to achieve reconnection between neuronal structures, it is of great importance to characterize the behaviour of these cells on long thread-like structures that may efficiently guide cell spread in a targeted way. Here, rat OECs were studied on polycaprolactone (PCL) long monofilaments, on long bars and on discs. PCL turns out to be an excellent substrate for OECs. The cells cover long distances along the monofilaments and colonize completely these structures. With the help of a one-dimensional (1D) analytical model, a migration coefficient, a net proliferation rate constant and the fraction of all cells which undergo migration were obtained. The separate effect of the three phenomena summarized by these parameters on the colonization patterns of the 1D path was qualitatively discussed. Other features of interest were also determined, such as the speed of the advance front of colonization and the order of the kinetics of net cell proliferation. Characterizing migration by means of these quantities may be useful for comparing and predicting features of the colonization process (such as times, patterns, advance fronts and proportion of motile cells) of different cell?Csubstrate combinations.     

成年大鼠嗅鞘细胞与嗅觉神经成纤维细胞的原代培养及鉴定

目的 建立一种原代提取嗅鞘细胞与嗅觉神经成纤维细胞混合培养的方法.方法 自2.5月龄SD大鼠嗅球最外两层分离嗅鞘细胞和嗅觉神经成纤维细胞进行混合培养,并不进行纯化,分别于7 d、10 d、14 d行免疫细胞化学鉴定,并计算各个时间点嗅鞘细胞的纯度.结果 体外培养的嗅鞘细胞主要呈两极或多极状,而嗅觉神经成纤维细胞则成扁平的像成纤维细胞的形态,免疫细胞化学结果显示嗅鞘细胞呈p75 NGFR阳性,嗅觉神经成纤维细胞呈fibronectin阳性,两种细胞都呈vimentin阳性,在7 d、10 d、14 d各个时间点嗅鞘细胞分别占混合培养的34.1%、25.6%、8.6%.结论 从成年大鼠嗅球最外两层分离的培养中主要包含嗅鞘细胞和嗅觉神经成纤维细胞,嗅鞘细胞在混合培养中所占的比例随培养时间的延长而逐渐降低.     

嗅鞘细胞复合PLGA导管修复周围神经缺损的研究

探讨嗅鞘细胞(OECs)复合聚乳酸-聚羟基乙酸共聚物(PLGA)导管对大鼠坐骨神经缺损的修复作用。方法:SD大鼠80只,随机分成4组,切除右侧部分神经干造成10mm的神经缺损。OECs PLGA组用充满细胞外基质凝胶和OECs悬液(CM-DiI预标记)的PLGA导管桥接坐骨神经缺损;OECs 硅胶管组用含相同内容物的硅胶管桥接;PLGA组和硅胶管组则分别用充满细胞外基质凝胶和DMEM/F12培养基的PLGA导管和硅胶管桥接。术后每周进行感觉运动功能检测,8周时行腓肠肌湿重恢复率、乙酰胆碱脂酶(AChE)染色、电生理和组织形态学分析等检测,同时移植细胞的两组每周进行细胞示踪观察。结果:移植细胞沿神经纵轴分布;除坐骨神经功能指数(SFI)指标外,OECs PLGA组的各项再生功能指标均优于其它三组。结论:OECs复合PLGA导管能够促进再生神经的成熟和靶组织功能的恢复,二者联合移植是一种有效的周围神经缺损修复方法。     

NADPH-Diaphorase-Positive Nerve Cells in Heterotopic Spinal Cord Transplants

The method of ectopic transplantation of embryonic CNS rudiments makes it possible to study the mechanisms underlying adaptation of the transplanted embryonic rudiments. The production of nitric oxide by cells is considered as one of such mechanisms. NADPH-diaphorase is an index of the presence of nitric oxide synthase in cells. It was shown that the nerve cells of rat embryonic spinal cord transplants preserved their capacity to express NADPH-diaphorase after transplantation in the sciatic nerve of an adult animal for six months. The dynamics of NADPH-diaphorase-positive neurons of rat embryonic spinal cord developing after transplantation and in situwere studied. In spinal cord neck region, small bipolar NADPH-diaphorase-positive neurons were visualized on day 17 of prenatal development. After transplantation of the embryonic (day 15) spinal cord in the nerve, NADPH-diaphorase-positive neurons were formed later than in situ: within seven days. The results of histochemical studies carried out within six months after the operation suggest a protective role of NADPH-diaphorase in the neurons of allotransplants developing under the conditions of altered microenvironment and insufficient innervation and also suggest that nitric oxide can cause the death of neurons in long surviving transplants.     

Clonal In Vitro Analysis of Neurotrophin Receptor p75-Immunofluorescent Cells Reveals Phenotypic Plasticity of Primary Rat Olfactory Ensheathing Cells

Clonal in vitro analysis represents a powerful tool for studying cellular differentiation. In the present study, microscope-assisted single cell transfer was combined with immunofluorescence to establish clonal cultures of identified primary rat olfactory ensheathing cells (OECs). During development, OECs originate from the neural crest, a transient population of multipotent cells. Since only neural crest cells have been analyzed at clonal density, it remained unclear whether OECs may retain multipotent features. Neurotrophin receptor p75 (p75^NTR)-immunolabelled rat OECs were seeded at clonal density under visual control using a semiautomated cell selection and transfer device (Quixell?) and emerging clones were analyzed with regard to proliferation and antigenic expression. We demonstrate that OECs from neonatal (P1) and 7 day-old (P7) but not from adult rats formed clones in the presence of OEC- and astrocyte-conditioned media (OEC-CM, A-CM). Cloning efficiency but not in vitro growth of OECs was independent of age but increased upon treatment with OEC-CM. Interestingly, about 75 % of P1 compared to 27 % of P7 OEC clones lost p75^NTR expression during 2 weeks in vitro and acquired immunoreactivity for Thy-1. The observation that primary OECs from P1 lost expression of p75^NTR at clonal density and initiated expression of the fibroblast marker Thy-1 may suggest that their developmental potential is greater than previously anticipated. Since microscope-assisted selection of immunofluorescent cells combined with semiautomated transfer guarantees monoclonality in a single step and affords selection of cells according to fluorescent label and/or morphological criteria it may be relevant for a variety of other cell types.     

大鼠脊髓匀浆上清诱导骨髓间充质干细胞分化为神经元样细胞的实验研究

目的:观察大鼠脊髓匀浆上清诱导骨髓间充质干细胞(mesenchymal stem cells,MSCs)形成的神经元样细胞形态特征.方法:通过贴壁法培养分离大鼠骨髓MSCs,体外扩增纯化后加入正常大鼠脊髓匀浆上清诱导72h,倒置显微镜下观察诱导前后细胞的形态结构.激光共聚焦显微镜观测钙离子细胞形态和荧光强度变化,免疫细胞化学方法鉴定诱导后细胞的表型特征.结果:倒置显微镜下可见MSCs呈纺锤形和多角形,核居中,有1-2个核仁,诱导后细胞呈神经元样,细胞伸出较长的轴突样和树突样突起.免疫细胞化学法显示NSE(神经元特异性烯醇化酶)、NF(神经丝蛋白)阳性,GFAP(神经胶质细胞酸性蛋白)阴性.共聚焦显微镜扫描脊髓匀浆上清诱导前细胞形态呈细长的梭形,细胞核不明显,胞体染色强,突起染色弱,荧光像素值低;诱导后,细胞呈现神经元样形态,胞体大,有多个突起,胞体及各突起染色强,荧光像素值高.结论:大鼠脊髓匀浆上清液可在体外诱导骨髓间充质干细胞分化为神经元样细胞.     

Zebrafish Spinal Cord Repair Is Accompanied by Transient Tissue Stiffening

Severe injury to the mammalian spinal cord results in permanent loss of function due to the formation of a glial-fibrotic scar. Both the chemical composition and the mechanical properties of the scar tissue have been implicated to inhibit neuronal regrowth and functional recovery. By contrast, adult zebrafish are able to repair spinal cord tissue and restore motor function after complete spinal cord transection owing to a complex cellular response that includes axon regrowth and is accompanied by neurogenesis. The mechanical mechanisms contributing to successful spinal cord repair in adult zebrafish are, however, currently unknown. Here, we employ atomic force microscopy-enabled nanoindentation to determine the spatial distributions of apparent elastic moduli of living spinal cord tissue sections obtained from uninjured zebrafish and at distinct time points after complete spinal cord transection. In uninjured specimens, spinal gray matter regions were stiffer than white matter regions. During regeneration after transection, the spinal cord tissues displayed a significant increase of the respective apparent elastic moduli that transiently obliterated the mechanical difference between the two types of matter before returning to baseline values after the completion of repair. Tissue stiffness correlated variably with cell number density, oligodendrocyte interconnectivity, axonal orientation, and vascularization. This work constitutes the first quantitative mapping of the spatiotemporal changes of spinal cord tissue stiffness in regenerating adult zebrafish and provides the tissue mechanical basis for future studies into the role of mechanosensing in spinal cord repair.     

胎鼠脊髓源性神经干细胞分离培养与鉴定

目的:研究胎鼠的脊髓源性神经干细胞的分离培养方法并观察其增殖和分化能力。方法:利用显微操作技术分离获得胎鼠脊髓组织、无血清培养技术和酶消化法结合机械法传代培养神经干细胞、免疫细胞化学方法鉴定神经干细胞和分化情况。结果:建立了胎鼠脊髓源性神经干细胞的分离、培养和鉴定的方法,观察到了脊髓源性神经干细胞具有较强的增殖能力,在添加有5ng／mlEGF和5ng／mlbFGF的无血清培养液中可贴壁分化为神经元、少突细胞和星形胶质细胞。结论:在体外培养条件下分离培养的胎鼠脊髓源性神经干细胞具有干细胞的特性即较强的增殖能力和多向分化潜能。