Gender,Migration and HIV in Rural KwaZulu-Natal,South Africa

Objectives

Research on migration and HIV has largely focused on male migration, often failing to measure HIV risks associated with migration for women. We aimed to establish whether associations between migration and HIV infection differ for women and men, and identify possible mechanisms by which women''s migration contributes to their high infection risk.

Design

Data on socio-demographic characteristics, patterns of migration, sexual behavior and HIV infection status were obtained for a population of 11,677 women aged 15–49 and men aged 15–54, resident members of households within a demographic surveillance area participating in HIV surveillance in 2003–04.

Methods

Logistic regression was conducted to examine whether sex and migration were independently associated with HIV infection in three additive effects models, using measures of recent migration, household presence and migration frequency. Multiplicative effects models were fitted to explore whether the risk of HIV associated with migration differed for males and females. Further modeling and simulations explored whether composition or behavioral differences accounted for observed associations.

Results

Relative to non-migrant males, non-migrant females had higher odds of being HIV-positive (adjusted odds ratio [aOR] = 1.72; 95% confidence interval [1.49–1.99]), but odds were higher for female migrants (aOR = 2.55 [2.07–3.13]). Female migrants also had higher odds of infection relative to female non-migrants (aOR = 1.48 [1.23–1.77]). The association between number of sexual partners over the lifetime and HIV infection was modified by both sex and migrant status: For male non-migrants, each additional partner was associated with 3% higher odds of HIV infection (aOR = 1.03 [1.02–1.05]); for male migrants the association between number of partners and HIV infection was non-significant. Each additional partner increased odds of HIV infection by 22% for female non-migrants (aOR = 1.22 [1.12–1.32]) and 46% for female migrants (aOR = 1.46 [1.25–1.69]).

Conclusions

Higher risk sexual behavior in the context of migration increased women''s likelihood of HIV infection.     

Treatment of Cryptococcal Meningitis in KwaZulu-Natal,South Africa

Background

Cryptococcal meningitis (CM) remains a leading cause of death for HIV-infected individuals in sub-Saharan Africa. Improved treatment strategies are needed if individuals are to benefit from the increasing availability of antiretroviral therapy. We investigated the factors associated with mortality in routine care in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa.

Methodology/Principal Findings

A prospective year long, single-center, consecutive case series of individuals diagnosed with cryptococcal meningitis 190 patients were diagnosed with culture positive cryptococcal meningitis, of whom 186 were included in the study. 52/186 (28.0%) patients died within 14 days of diagnosis and 60/186 (32.3%) had died by day 28. In multivariable cox regression analysis, focal neurology (aHR 11 95%C.I. 3.08–39.3, P<0.001), diastolic blood pressure <60 mmHg (aHR 2.37 95%C.I. 1.11–5.04, P = 0.025), concurrent treatment for tuberculosis (aHR 2.11 95%C.I. 1.02–4.35, P = 0.044) and use of fluconazole monotherapy (aHR 3.69 95% C.I. 1.74–7.85, P<0.001) were associated with increased mortality at 14 and 28 days.

Conclusions

Even in a setting where amphotericin B is available, mortality from cryptococcal meningitis in this setting is high, particularly in the immediate period after diagnosis. This highlights the still unmet need not only for earlier diagnosis of HIV and timely access to treatment of opportunistic infections, but for better treatment strategies of cryptococcal meningitis.     

Predictors of mammal species richness in KwaZulu-Natal,South Africa

The management of multi-functional landscapes warrants better knowledge of environment-richness associations at varying disturbance levels and habitat gradients. Intensive land-use patterns for agricultural purposes lead to fragmentation of natural habitat resulting in biodiversity loss that can be measured using landscape metrics to assess mammalian richness. Since carnivores and herbivores are likely to show different responses to disturbance, we calculated carnivore, non-carnivore, and total mammal species richness from camera surveys using a first order Jackknife Estimator. Richness was compared along a habitat gradient comprising coastal forest, Acacia thicket, and highland in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. We used standardized OLS regression models to identify climatic and disturbance variables, and landscape metrics as predictors of species richness. The estimated total and non-carnivore species richness were highest in coastal forest, while carnivore species richness was highest in highland followed by coastal forest and Acacia thicket. Average monthly maximum temperature was a significant predictor of all richness groups, and precipitation of the wettest month and isothermality determined total and non-carnivore species richness, respectively. These climatic variables possibly limit species distribution because of physiological tolerance of the species. Total mammal richness was determined by mean shape (+) and habitat division (−) while diversity (+) and patch richness (−) explained carnivore species richness. Mean shape index (+) influenced non-carnivore richness. However, habitat division and patch richness negatively influenced total mammal richness. Though habitat patch size and contiguity had a weak positive prediction, these metrics demonstrated the importance of habitat connectivity for maintaining mammal richness. The identification of these climatic and landscape patterns is important to facilitate future landscape management for mammal conservation in forest-mosaics.     

Spread of extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis in KwaZulu-Natal province, South Africa

Background

In 2005 a cluster of 53 HIV-infected patients with extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis (XDR-TB) was detected in the Msinga sub-district, the catchment area for the Church of Scotland Hospital (CoSH) in Tugela Ferry, in KwaZulu-Natal province (KZN), South Africa. KZN is divided into 11 healthcare districts. We sought to determine the distribution of XDR TB cases in the province in relation to population density.

Methods

In this cross-sectional study, the KZN tuberculosis laboratory database was analysed. Results of all patients with a sputum culture positive for Mycobacterium tuberculosis from January 2006 to June 2007 were included. Drug-susceptibility test results for isoniazid, rifampicin, ethambutol, streptomycin, kanamycin and ofloxacin were available for all patients as well as the location of the hospital where their clinical diagnosis was made.

Findings

In total, 20858 patients attending one of 73 hospitals or their adjacent clinics had cultures positive for M. tuberculosis. Of these, 4170 (20%) were MDR-TB cases. Four hundred and forty three (11%) of the MDR tuberculosis cases displayed the XDR tuberculosis susceptibility profile. Only 1429 (34%) of the MDR-TB patients were seen at the provincial referral hospital for treatment. The proportion of XDR-TB amongst culture-confirmed cases was highest in the Msinga sub-district (19.6%), followed by the remaining part of the Umzinyati district (5.9%) and the other 10 districts (1.1%). The number of hospitals with at least one XDR-TB case increased from 18 (25%) to 58 (80%) during the study period.

Interpretation

XDR-TB is present throughout KZN. More than 65% of all diagnosed MDR-TB cases, including XDR-TB patients, were left untreated and likely remained in the community as a source of infection.     

Release of rehabilitated Chlorocebus aethiops to Isishlengeni Game Farm in KwaZulu-Natal,South Africa

Chlorocebus aethiops are treated as vermin by some in South Africa, and this has resulted in injury, illness and death of hundreds of C. aethiops, with orphans being very common. Rehabilitation centres care for, rehabilitate and aim to return these monkeys to the wild. This study describes the release of 29 C. aethiops to Isishlengeni Game Farm in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. The troop was monitored for six months. Confirmed survival of the troop was 62%, with 17% suspected mortality and 21% of the troop unaccounted for. The release site was not ideal due to hunting activities, the proximity of dwellings and roads and the presence of a wild troop. Preparation for release could be improved through the provision of naturally occurring foods and pre-release disease screening. Post-release monitoring would greatly benefit from the use of tracking devices to allow all animals to be followed post-release.     

Genome Analysis of Multi- and Extensively-Drug-Resistant Tuberculosis from KwaZulu-Natal,South Africa

The KZN strain family of Mycobacterium tuberculosis is a highly virulent strain endemic to the KwaZulu-Natal region of South Africa, which has recently experienced an outbreak of extensively-drug resistant tuberculosis. To investigate the causes and evolution of drug-resistance, we determined the DNA sequences of several clinical isolates - one drug-susceptible, one multi-drug resistant, and nine extensively drug-resistant - using whole-genome sequencing. Analysis of polymorphisms among the strains is consistent with the drug-susceptibility profiles, in that well-known mutations are observed that are correlated with resistance to isoniazid, rifampicin, kanamycin, ofloxacin, ethambutol, and pyrazinamide. However, the mutations responsible for rifampicin resistance in rpoB and pyrazinamide in pncA are in different nucleotide positions in the multi-drug-resistant and extensively drug-resistant strains, clearly showing that they acquired these mutations independently, and that the XDR strain could not have evolved directly from the MDR strain (though it could have arisen from another similar MDR strain). Sequencing of eight additional XDR strains from other areas of KwaZulu-Natal shows that they have identical drug resistant mutations to the first one sequenced, including the same polymorphisms at sites associated with drug resistance, supporting the theory that this represents a case of clonal expansion.     

Characterizing the Late Pleistocene MSA Lithic Technology of Sibudu,KwaZulu-Natal,South Africa

Studies of the African Middle Stone Age (MSA) have become central for defining the cultural adaptations that accompanied the evolution of modern humans. While much of recent research in South Africa has focused on the Still Bay and Howiesons Poort (HP), periods following these technocomplexes were often neglected. Here we examine lithic assemblages from Sibudu that post-date the HP to further the understanding of MSA cultural variability during the Late Pleistocene. Sibudu preserves an exceptionally thick, rich, and high-resolution archaeological sequence that dates to ∼58 ka, which has recently been proposed as type assemblage for the “Sibudan”. This study presents a detailed analysis of the six uppermost lithic assemblages from these deposits (BM-BSP) that we excavated from 2011–2013. We define the key elements of the lithic technology and compare our findings to other assemblages post-dating the HP. The six lithic assemblages provide a distinct and robust cultural signal, closely resembling each other in various technological, techno-functional, techno-economic, and typological characteristics. These results refute assertions that modern humans living after the HP possessed an unstructured and unsophisticated MSA lithic technology. While we observed several parallels with other contemporaneous MSA sites, particularly in the eastern part of southern Africa, the lithic assemblages at Sibudu demonstrate a distinct and so far unique combination of techno-typological traits. Our findings support the use of the Sibudan to help structuring this part of the southern African MSA and emphasize the need for further research to identify the spatial and temporal extent of this proposed cultural unit.     

HIV incidence remains high in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa: evidence from three districts

Background

HIV prevalence and incidence among sexually active women in peri-urban areas of Ladysmith, Edendale, and Pinetown, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, were assessed between October 2007 and February 2010 in preparation for vaginal microbicide trials.

Methodology/Principal Findings

Sexually active women 18–35 years, not known to be HIV-positive or pregnant were tested cross-sectionally to determine HIV and pregnancy prevalence (798 in Ladysmith, 1,084 in Edendale, and 891 in Pinetown). Out of these, approximately 300 confirmed non-pregnant, HIV-negative women were subsequently enrolled at each clinical research center (CRC) in a 12-month cohort study with quarterly study visits. Women in the cohort studies were required to use a condom plus a hormonal contraceptive method. HIV prevalence rates in the baseline cross-sectional surveys were high: 42% in Ladysmith, 46% in Edendale and 41% in Pinetown. Around 90% of study participants at each CRC reported one sex partner in the last 3 months, but only 14–30% stated that they were sure that none of their sex partners were HIV-positive. HIV incidence rates based on seroconversions over 12 months were 14.8/100 person-years (PY) (95% CI 9.7, 19.8) in Ladysmith, 6.3/100 PY (95% CI 3.2, 9.4) in Edendale, and 7.2/100 PY (95% CI 3.7, 10.7) in Pinetown. The 12-month pregnancy incidence rates (in the context of high reported contraceptive use) were: 5.7/100 PY (95% CI 2.6, 8.7) in Ladysmith, 3.1/100 PY (95% CI 0.9, 5.2) in Edendale and 6.3/100 PY (95% CI 3.0, 9.6) in Pinetown.

Conclusions/Significance

HIV prevalence and incidence remain high in peri-urban areas of KwaZulu-Natal.     

Killickia (Lamiaceae): a new genus from KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa

The genus Killickia is described to accommodate the South African endemic species formerly placed in Micromeria sect. Hesperothymus . Morphological data, as well as results from unpublished phylogenetic studies support its separation from the genera Micromeria and Clinopodium . A new species Killickia lutea Bräuchler is described and three new combinations are made. Killickia is characterised as comprising solitary- or few-flowered cymes, a campanulate to subcampanulate (obconical) calyx with similar teeth, a corolla tube with two pubescent ridges and nutlets with scattered minute hairs. A thickened marginal vein in the leaves as typical for Micromeria is absent. As currently understood all species are restricted to the Drakensberg mountains and KwaZulu-Natal Midlands in eastern South Africa. A key to the species, brief notes on anatomy and ecology are provided.  © 2008 The Linnean Society of London, Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society , 2008, 157 , 575–586.     

Plant community and landscape patterns of a floodplain wetland in Maputaland, Northern KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa

The lower Mkuze River floodplain is located east of the Lebombo Mountains on the Maputaland Coastal Plain in northern KwaZulu‐Natal, South Africa. The vegetation ecology of the floodplain was examined using the hierarchical framework described by landscape ecology theory. The smallest spatial scale to which the vegetation of the floodplain was described was the relatively homogeneous units of plant communities. From a landscape ecology perspective this level of analysis is referred to as the grain. Six plant communities were identified using two‐way indicator species analysis (TWINSPAN) classification. The distribution of these plant communities were correlated to an underlying inundation‐sedimentation gradient using the ordination technique, detrended correspondence analysis (DCA). This correlation provided a useful foundation for the examination of ecological processes and phenomena at the next higher, spatially coarser level within the landscape hierarchy, namely the reference level. This reference level was described by three functional types delimited by differing flooding and sedimentation regimes. The use of landscape ecology theory guided the interpretation of results by explicitly recognizing the importance of spatial heterogeneity, hierarchical organization and dynamics, and proved invaluable in developing process‐based understanding of the vegetation ecology of the lower Mkuze River floodplain.     

Vegetation variation within and among palustrine wetlands along an altitudinal gradient in KwaZulu-Natal,South Africa

The variation in graminoid species composition and diversity and the distribution of photosynthetic pathways among 66 wetlands in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, and within six of these wetlands was described and related to measured physical parameters, using multivariate and univariate techniques. Altitude, which ranged from 550 m to 2120 m, accounted for most variation among wetlands, with an almost complete turnover of species along this gradient. Landform setting was less important in explaining overall species composition, but relationships of individual species were revealed (e.g. Eleocharis dregeana showed an affinity for depressions). Within a wetland there was an almost complete turnover of species along a gradient of wetness, as described using soil morphological criteria. Most species were consistently associated with the same wetness zones across different wetland sites, e.g., Phragmites australis with the wettest zone, Pycreus macranthus with the intermediate zone, and Eragrostis plana with the least wet zone. The occurrence and abundance of different photosynthetic pathway types depended on altitude and degree of wetness. At high altitudes, C₃ sedges, notably Carex acutiformis, dominated the wettest zone and C₃ and C₄ grasses and sedges dominated the intermediate and least wet zones. At mid altitudes, C₃ and C₄ sedges and C₃ grasses dominated the wettest zone, C₃ and C₄ grasses and sedges dominated the intermediate zone and C₄ grasses dominated the least wet zone. Low altitude sites showed a similar distribution of photosynthetic pathways as mid-altitude sites, but C₃ species were less abundant. Species richness was positively associated with the log of wetland size and, at the level of an individual wetland, species richness and evenness were found to be consistently greater in the intermediate and least wet zone compared with the wettest zone. The management implications of the results are discussed in the light of continuing anthropogenic loss of wetlands in the study area and global climate change.     

Knowledge,Practices, and Attitudes of Emergency Contraception among Female University Students in KwaZulu-Natal,South Africa

Objective

The purpose of this study is to investigate the knowledge, practices, and attitudes among female university students in South Africa regarding emergency contraceptives (EC).

Methods

A cross-sectional study was conducted among 582 female university students who were selected using multi-stage sampling techniques. Multivariate logistic regression analysis was used to find significant predictors for EC awareness.

Results

The average age of the female students was 20.9 years (SD = 3.0) and 57.2% were presently sexually active. Overall, 49.8% of the participants reported having heard about EC prior to the study. Regarding sexual activities among the female students, 53.2% reported to have sex, and 21.2% of the sexually experienced students used EC prior to the study. Regarding the effectiveness of EC, 29.5% students said it could be used up to 72 hours after unprotected sexual intercourse, and 8% said it could be used just before sex. About two-thirds (61.8%) would recommend the use of EC and 63.2% would use it if they needed. The multivariate analysis indicated that students who were older (>20 years), presently sexually active, and living with their parents were more likely to be aware of EC (p<0.05).

Conclusion

The students’ knowledge and utilization of EC were low. Health education and promotion should be targeted towards these students, and the EC services should be offered on campus.     

Soil Characteristics of Rehabilitating and Unmined Coastal Dunes at Richards Bay, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa

The postmining rehabilitation of coastal sand dunes north of Richards Bay (28°43′S, 32°12′E), South Africa, is resulting in the development of a series of known-aged stands of vegetation dominated by Acacia karroo (sweet thorn). Other broad-leaved species are establishing themselves in rehabilitating areas more than 12 years of age. Soils from rehabilitating stands 3–5, 9–12, 13–15, and 16–18 years of age, from two disturbed, unmined stands 30 and 58 years of age, and from a mature unmined stand were examined to assess age-related trends in selected soil properties. Individually, these stands represent a series of different developmental stages of a coastal dune successional sere. Soil organic material, percentage organic carbon and concentrations of sodium, potassium, magnesium, calcium, and nitrogen increased with an increase in habitat regeneration age. Concentrations of most of these elements were lower than those recorded on the 58-year-old unmined and mature unmined stands. Multivariate analyses suggest, however, that the similarity of these values for rehabilitating stands to those for the unmined stands increased with an increase in regeneration age. The growth response of Raphanus sativus (radish) plants, based on mass attained under experimental growing conditions in soil collected from these stands, suggests an increase in soil fertility with an increase in regeneration age.     

Roads as Ecological Edges for Rehabilitating Coastal Dune Assemblages in Northern KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa

Abstract Post‐mining coastal dune rehabilitation north of Richards Bay, KwaZulu‐Natal started 20 years before field work for the present study commenced. This resulted in the development of a known age sere of coastal dune forest succession. These rehabilitating areas are fragmented by roads that may act as ecological edges. To establish whether roads affect regenerating bird, millipede, and rodent assemblages, multivariate techniques were applied to test for existence of edge and core assemblages within seral stages representative of the coastal dune forest successional sere. Edge and core assemblages were identified for both the bird and millipede communities but not for the rodent community. Low rodent numbers may have concealed edge effects, but the absence of edge and core assemblages could also be ascribed to the absence of a forest core. In the bird community species composition, richness, density, and total number of species contributed to the identification of edge and core assemblages. Within seral stages the species composition of millipedes differed between the edge and core assemblages. However, if the site was the same age the number of species in edge and core assemblages was similar. The generality of the edge concept should be approached with caution when dealing with taxa comprising species with such diverse natural histories as in the present study. It should also be kept in mind that some species require forest interiors for survival.     

A Holocene sequence of vegetation change at Lake Eteza, coastal KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa

Palynological and sedimentological data from a core extracted from Lake Eteza shed new light on the Holocene vegetation and climate history in KwaZulu-Natal and can be linked to regional and global climate change. A 2072 cm core with nineteen radiocarbon dates and chronological extrapolation to the bottom of the sequence suggests that sedimentation started ca. 10 200 cal yrs BP. Between ca. 10 200 and 6800 cal yrs BP pollen indicators point to a change from intermediately humid conditions to comparatively drier grassy environments. This is in good agreement with Sea Surface Temperature (SST) fluctuations from a core in the Mozambique Channel which influence precipitation in coastal KwaZulu-Natal, and the beginning of the Holocene Thermal Maximum ca. 10 500 cal yrs BP. The lower section of the core corresponds to gradually increasing Holocene sea levels along the coast and development of freshwater or estuarine conditions at Lake Eteza. The middle Holocene (ca. 6800-3600 cal yrs BP), when the sea level reached its highest stand and SST peak, indicate humid climatic conditions that favoured an increase of forest trees, e.g. Podocarpus, and undergrowth plants like Issoglossa. As a consequence of higher precipitation and increase of the water table, conditions were favourable for the spread of mangrove, swamp and possibly riverine forest. During the late Holocene after ca. 3600 cal yrs BP a decrease of Podocarpus and other trees as well as an increase of Chenopodiaceae/Amaranthaceae, grasses and Phoenix coincide with a return to lower sea levels and drier conditions. The decrease of all trees including Phoenix at ca. 700 cal yrs BP, accompanied by rapid sedimentation rates, possibly reflect forest clearing and upland erosion induced by activities of Iron Age settlers. A dry period at the globally recognized onset of the Little Ice Age might have contributed to these changes. Late Iron Age settlers have probably already introduced Zea mays, which was detected in the profile since ca. 210 BP. The appearance of neophytes like Pinus, Casuarina and pollen of Ambrosia-type in the youngest sediments indicates increased disturbance of European settlements and land use since ca. 100 cal yrs BP.     

An Evaluation of Habitat Rehabilitation on Coastal Dune Forests in Northern KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa

The rehabilitation program conducted by Richards Bay Minerals (RBM) of areas exposed to opencast surface mining of sand dunes north of Richards Bay (28°43'S, 32°12'E) on the coast of northern KwaZulu-Natal Province commenced 16 years before this study and has resulted in the development of a series of known-aged stands of vegetation. By assuming that these spatially separated stands develop along a similar pathway over time, instantaneous sampling should reveal successional or other changes usually associated with aging and should provide an opportunity to evaluate the success of rehabilitation. We compare relative densities of pioneer and secondary species, species richness, and a similarity index of the herbaceous layer, tree, beetle, millipede, bird, and small-mammal communities of rehabilitating areas of known age with those of 30-year-old unmined forests and unmined forests of unknown age adjacent to the rehabilitating area. Species richness for all but the mammalian taxa increased with increasing age of rehabilitating stands. For all taxa but the mammals and herbaceous layer, the unmined stands harbored more species than the mined rehabilitating stands. The relative densities of pioneer species of all the taxa decreased with an increase in the age of rehabilitating stands, whereas those of the secondary species increased with an increase in habitat age. Similarity between unmined stands and rehabilitating stands of different ages increased with increasing regeneration age of rehabilitating stands, suggesting that rehabilitating communities, in terms of species composition and relative densities, are developing towards the status of unmined communities. Rehabilitation based on RBM's management program of limited interference is occurring and may result in the reestablishment of a coastal dune forest ecosystem. But rehabilitation resulting from succession depends on the availability of species sources from which colonization can take place. In the Richards Bay mining operation the present mining path is laid out so that such refuges are present.     

Commercial herbal preparations in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa: The urban face of traditional medicine

The modern trend in traditional medicines reflects an increase in the sale of complex herbal mixtures rather than those prepared from single plants. This trend is well documented in Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) and can be seen in recent developments in African traditional medicine. An increase in the prevalence of locally produced herbal preparations, especially those containing complex mixtures of several medicinal plants, sold in numerous retail outlets, including supermarkets and pharmacies has been observed. The appearance of these preparations is not surprising in rapidly urbanizing societies where traditional products are still desired but the users have neither the time nor resources to produce them. The production of these herbal mixtures has resulted in a growing herbal industry with about 50 to 100 private entrepreneurs in the informal market and has also contributed to creation of numerous jobs. The products are extensively advertised in newspapers, on the internet, television and radio programmes as well as through pamphlets and posters. This review examines and documents the prevalence of commercial herbal mixtures and preparations common in Pietermaritzburg, KwaZulu-Natal. Different types of herbal mixtures, claims, ethical and legal implications are discussed. Methods of preparation and marketing strategies as well as the way forward in ensuring economic impact, safety and efficacy of this new aspect of South African traditional medicine are also highlighted.