多种S1断裂内含肽的体内交叉反应

断裂内含肽含有两个独立分离的多肽片段(N端内含肽和C端内含肽),它催化蛋白质反式剪接反应,在蛋白质研究与蛋白质工程中已得到诸多实际应用.在蛋白质反式剪接过程中,内含肽的N端内含肽和C端内含肽通过结构互补特异性地非共价组合.然而,Ssp DnaX S1型断裂内含肽的较大C端内含肽片段近来被发现能够与源自其它内含肽的N端内含肽片段交叉反应,表明蛋白质内含子Ssp DnaX具有结构杂交特征.本研究对另外2种S1型内含肽Rma DnaB和Ssp GyrB的较大C端内含肽与不同S1型断裂内含肽的N 端内含肽交叉反应活性进行分析检测.目的是探讨S1型断裂内含肽的结构杂交特征是否具有普遍性.结果发现,Rma DnaB的S1 C端内含肽能够与Ssp GyrB的S1 N端内含肽交叉反应,却不能与Ssp DnaX的S1 N端内含肽交叉反应;与此相似,Ssp GyrB的S1 C端内含肽能够与Rma DnaB的 S1 N端内含肽交叉反应,却不能与Ssp DnaX的S1 N端内含肽交叉反应.此外,某些交叉反应表现出温度依赖性.这些结果对于内含肽的结构 功能关系以及S1型断裂内含肽的应用研究具有重要的意义.     

Engineered Ssp DnaX inteins for protein splicing with flanking proline residues

Inteins are internal protein sequences capable of catalyzing a protein splicing reaction by self-excising from a precursor protein and simultaneously joining the flanking sequences with a peptide bond. Split inteins have separate pieces (N-intein and C-intein) that reassemble non-covalently to catalyze a protein trans-splicing reaction joining two polypeptides. Protein splicing has become increasingly useful tools in many fields of biological research and biotechnology. However, natural and engineered inteins have failed previously to function when being flanked by proline residue at the −1 or +2 positions, which limits general uses of inteins. In this study, different engineered inteins were tested. We found that engineered Ssp DnaX mini-intein and split inteins could carry out protein splicing with proline at the +2 positions or at both −1 and +2 positions. Under in vivo conditions in E. coli cells, the mini-intein, S1 split intein, and S11 split intein spliced efficiently, whereas the S0 split intein did not splice with proline at both −1 and +2 positions. The S1 and S11 split inteins also trans-spliced efficiently in vitro with proline at the +2 positions or at both −1 and +2 positions, but the S0 split intein trans-spliced inefficiently with proline at the +2 position and did not trans-splice with proline at both −1 and +2 positions. These findings contribute significantly to the toolbox of intein-based technologies by allowing the use of inteins in proteins having proline at the splicing point.     

Protein Trans-Splicing of an Atypical Split Intein Showing Structural Flexibility and Cross-Reactivity

Inteins catalyze a protein splicing reaction to excise the intein from a precursor protein and join the flanking sequences (exteins) with a peptide bond. In a split intein, the intein fragments (I_N and I_C) can reassemble non-covalently to catalyze a trans-splicing reaction that joins the exteins from separate polypeptides. An atypical split intein having a very small I_N and a large I_C is particularly useful for joining synthetic peptides with recombinant proteins, which can be a generally useful method of introducing site-specific chemical labeling or modifications into proteins. However, a large I_C derived from an Ssp DnaX intein was found recently to undergo spontaneous C-cleavage, which raised questions regarding its structure-function and ability to trans-splice. Here, we show that this I_C could undergo trans-splicing in the presence of I_N, and the trans-splicing activity completely suppressed the C-cleavage activity. We also found that this I_C could trans-splice with small I_N sequences derived from two other inteins, showing a cross-reactivity of this atypical split intein. Furthermore, we found that this I_C could trans-splice even when the I_N sequence was embedded in a nearly complete intein sequence, suggesting that the small I_N could project out of the central pocket of the intein to become accessible to the I_C. Overall, these findings uncovered a new atypical split intein that can be valuable for peptide-protein trans-splicing, and they also revealed an interesting structural flexibility and cross-reactivity at the active site of this intein.     

NMR resonance assignment of DnaE intein from Nostoc punctiforme

DnaE intein from Nostoc punctiforme (Npu) is one of naturally occurring split inteins, which has robust protein splicing activity. Highly efficient trans-splicing activity of NpuDnaE intein could widen various biotechnological applications. However, structural basis of the efficient protein splicing activity is poorly understood. As a first step toward better understanding of protein trans-splicing mechanism, we present the backbone and side-chain resonance assignments of a single chain variant NpuDnaE intein as determined by triple resonance experiments with [¹³C,¹⁵N]-labeled protein.     

Solution structure of DnaE intein from Nostoc punctiforme: Structural basis for the design of a new split intein suitable for site-specific chemical modification

Naturally split DnaE intein from Nostoc punctiforme (Npu) has robust protein trans-splicing activity and high tolerance of sequence variations at the splicing junctions. We determined the solution structure of a single chain variant of NpuDnaE intein by NMR spectroscopy. Based on the NMR structure and the backbone dynamics of the single chain NpuDnaE intein, we designed a functional split variant of the NpuDnaE intein having a short C-terminal half (C-intein) composed of six residues. In vivo and in vitro protein ligation of model proteins by the newly designed split intein were demonstrated.     

An Engineered Split Intein for Photoactivated Protein Trans-Splicing

Protein splicing is mediated by inteins that auto-catalytically join two separated protein fragments with a peptide bond. Here we engineered a genetically encoded synthetic photoactivatable intein (named LOVInC), by using the light-sensitive LOV2 domain from Avena sativa as a switch to modulate the splicing activity of the split DnaE intein from Nostoc punctiforme. Periodic blue light illumination of LOVInC induced protein splicing activity in mammalian cells. To demonstrate the broad applicability of LOVInC, synthetic protein systems were engineered for the light-induced reassembly of several target proteins such as fluorescent protein markers, a dominant positive mutant of RhoA, caspase-7, and the genetically encoded Ca²⁺ indicator GCaMP2. Spatial precision of LOVInC was demonstrated by targeting activity to specific mammalian cells. Thus, LOVInC can serve as a general platform for engineering light-based control for modulating the activity of many different proteins.     

Structure–activity studies on the upstream splice junction of a semisynthetic intein

Protein trans-splicing by split inteins holds great potential for the chemical modification and semisynthesis of proteins. However, the structural requirements of the extein sequences immediately flanking the intein are only poorly understood. This knowledge is of particular importance for protein labeling, when synthetic moieties are to be attached to the protein of interest as seamlessly as possible. Using the semisynthetic Ssp DnaB intein both in form of its wild-type sequence and its evolved M86 mutant, we systematically varied the sequence upstream of the short synthetic Int^N fragment using both proteinogenic amino acids and unnatural building blocks. We could show for the wild-type variant that the native N-extein sequence could be reduced to the glycine residue at the (?1) position directly flanking the intein without significant loss of activity. The glycine at this position is strongly preferred over building blocks containing a phenyl group or extended alkyl chain adjacent to the scissile amide bond of the N-terminal splice junction. Despite their negative effects on the splicing yields, these unnatural substrates were well processed in the N–S acyl shift to form the respective thioesters and did not result in an increased decoupling of the asparagine cyclization step at the C-terminal splicing junction. Therefore, the transesterification step appeared to be the bottleneck of the protein splicing pathway. The fluorophore 7-hydroxycoumarinyl-4-acetic acid as a minimal N-extein was efficiently ligated to the model protein, in particular with the M86 mutant, probably because of its higher resemblance to glycine with an aliphatic c-α carbon atom at the (?1) position. This finding indicates a way for the virtually traceless labeling of proteins without inserting extra flanking residues. Due to its overall higher activity, the M86 mutant appears most promising for many protein labeling and chemical modification schemes using the split intein approach.     

Molecular dissection of the Mycobacterium tuberculosis RecA intein: design of a minimal intein and of a trans-splicing system involving two intein fragments

Most protein-splicing elements (inteins) function both as catalysts of protein splicing and as homing endonucleases. In order to identify the domains of inteins that are essential for protein splicing, the intein sequence embedded in the recA gene of Mycobacterium tuberculosis was genetically dissected. The effect of various modifications of the intein on the ability to mediate splicing was studied in Escherichia coli transformed with plasmids in which the coding sequence for the RecA intein was inserted in-frame between coding regions for the E. coli maltose-binding protein and a polypeptide containing a hexahistidine sequence as the N- and C-exteins, respectively. One type of genetic alteration of the RecA intein involved deletion of the the central region encoding 229 amino acids (aa), representing the entire homing endonuclease homology domain. The residual intein (211 aa plus an undecapeptide spacer) was able to promote protein splicing as efficiently as the wild-type intein, indicating that the homing endonuclease domain plays no role in the protein-splicing process and that the protein-splicing active center is confined to the N- and C-terminal segments of the intein, less than 110 aa each. Another type of alteration involved the introduction of overlapping translation termination and initiation codons in-frame into the intein coding region. The modified RecA intein, although synthesized as two separate components, could nevertheless mediate protein splicing, indicating that the N- and C-terminal protein-splicing domains can interact with sufficient affinity and specificity to allow protein-splicing to occur in trans. The efficiency of trans-splicing was much enhanced when the homing endonuclease domain was entirely deleted so that the length of the interacting N- and C-terminal intein fragments was only about 110 aa each.     

Intein lacking conserved C-terminal motif G retains controllable N-cleavage activity

A split-intein consists of two complementary fragments (N-intein and C-intein) that can associate to carry out protein trans-splicing. The Ssp GyrB S11 split-intein is an engineered unconventional split-intein consisting of a 150-amino-acid N-intein and an extremely small six-amino-acid C-intein, which comprises the conserved intein motif G. Here, we show that fusion proteins containing the 150-amino-acid N-intein could be triggered to undergo controllable N-cleavage in vitro when the six-amino-acid C-intein or a derivative thereof was added as a synthetic peptide in trans. More importantly, we discovered, unexpectedly, that the 150-amino-acid N-intein could be induced by strong nucleophiles to undergo N-cleavage in vitro, and in Escherichia coli cells, in the absence of the motif G-containing six-amino-acid C-intein. This finding indicated that the first step of the protein splicing mechanism (acyl shift) could occur in the absence of the entire motif G. Extensive kinetic analyses revealed that both the motif G residues and the Ser+1 residue positively influenced N-cleavage rate constants and yields. The 150-amino-acid N-intein could also tolerate various unrelated sequences appended to its C-terminus without disruption of the N-cleavage function, suggesting that the catalytic pocket of the intein has considerable structural flexibility. Our findings reveal interesting insights into intein structure-function relationships, and demonstrate a new and potentially more useful method of controllable, intein-mediated N-cleavage for protein engineering applications.     

Inter-chain disulfide bond improved protein trans-splicing increases plasma coagulation activity in C57BL/6 mice following portal vein FVIII gene delivery by dual vectors

Protein trans-splicing based dual-vector factor VIII(FVIII) gene delivery is adversely affected by less efficiency of protein splicing.We sought to increase the amount of spliced FVIII protein and plasma coagulation activity in dual-vector FVIII transgene in mice by means of strengthening the interaction of inteins,protein splicing elements,thereby facilitating protein trans-splicing.Dual-vector delivery of the FVIII gene in cultured cells showed that replacement of Met226 in the heavy chain and Asp1828 in the light chain with Cys residues could facilitate inter-chain disulfide linking and improve protein trans-splicing,increasing the levels of spliced FVIII protein.In this study,C57BL/6 mice were coadministered dual vectors of intein-fused human FVIII heavy chain and light chain with Cys mutations via portal vein injection into the liver.Forty-eight hours post-injection,plasma was collected and analyzed for FVIII antigen concentration and coagulation activity.These mice showed increased circulating FVIII heavy chain polypeptide(442±151 ng mL-1 vs.305±103 ng mL-1) and coagulation activity(1.46±0.37 IU mL-1 vs.0.85±0.23 IU mL-1) compared with control mice co-administered dual vectors expressing the heavy and light chains of wild-type FVIII.Moreover,coagulation activity was similar to that of mice receiving a single vector expressing FVIII(1.79±0.59 IU mL-1).These findings indicate that improving protein trans-splicing by inter-chain disulfide bonding is a promising approach for increasing the efficacy of dual-vector based FVIII gene transfer.     

Synthetic two-piece and three-piece split inteins for protein trans-splicing

Inteins are protein-intervening sequences that can self-excise and concomitantly splice together the flanking polypeptides. Two-piece split inteins capable of protein trans-splicing have been found in nature and engineered in laboratories, but they all have a similar split site corresponding to the endonuclease domain of the intein. Can inteins be split at other sites and do trans-splicing? After testing 13 split sites engineered into a Ssp DnaB mini-intein, we report the finding of three new split sites that each produced a two-piece split intein capable of protein trans-splicing. These three functional split sites are located in different loop regions between beta-strands of the intein structure, and one of them is just 11 amino acids from the beginning of the intein. Because different inteins have similar structures and similar beta-strands, these new split sites may be generalized to other inteins. We have also demonstrated for the first time that a three-piece split intein could function in protein trans-splicing. These findings have implications for intein structure-function, evolution, and uses in biotechnology.     

An Unprecedented Combination of Serine and Cysteine Nucleophiles in a Split Intein with an Atypical Split Site

Protein splicing mediated by inteins is a self-processive reaction leading to the excision of the internal intein domain from a precursor protein and the concomitant ligation of the flanking sequences, the extein-N and extein-C parts, thereby reconstituting the host protein. Most inteins employ a splicing pathway in which the upstream scissile peptide bond is consecutively rearranged into two thioester or oxoester intermediates before intein excision and rearrangement into the new peptide bond occurs. The catalytically critical amino acids involved at the two splice junctions are cysteine, serine, or threonine. Notably, the only potential combination not observed so far in any of the known or engineered inteins corresponds to the transesterification from an oxoester to a thioester, which suggested that this formal uphill reaction with regard to the thermodynamic stability might be incompatible with intein-mediated catalysis. We show that corresponding mutations also led to inactive gp41-1 and AceL-TerL inteins. We report the novel GOS-TerL split intein identified from metagenomic databases as the first intein harboring the combination of Ser1 and Cys+1 residues. Mutational analysis showed that its efficient splicing reaction indeed follows the shift from oxoester to thioester and thus represents a rare diversion from the canonical pathway. Furthermore, the GOS-TerL intein has an atypical split site close to the N terminus. The Int^N fragment could be shortened from 37 to 28 amino acids and exchanged with the 25-amino acid Int^N fragment from the AceL-TerL intein, indicating a high degree of promiscuity of the Int^C fragment of the GOS-TerL intein.     

Assembling a Correctly Folded and Functional Heptahelical Membrane Protein by Protein Trans-splicing

Protein trans-splicing using split inteins is well established as a useful tool for protein engineering. Here we show, for the first time, that this method can be applied to a membrane protein under native conditions. We provide compelling evidence that the heptahelical proteorhodopsin can be assembled from two separate fragments consisting of helical bundles A and B and C, D, E, F, and G via a splicing site located in the BC loop. The procedure presented here is on the basis of dual expression and ligation in vivo. Global fold, stability, and photodynamics were analyzed in detergent by CD, stationary, as well as time-resolved optical spectroscopy. The fold within lipid bilayers has been probed by high field and dynamic nuclear polarization-enhanced solid-state NMR utilizing a ¹³C-labeled retinal cofactor and extensively ¹³C-¹⁵N-labeled protein. Our data show unambiguously that the ligation product is identical to its non-ligated counterpart. Furthermore, our data highlight the effects of BC loop modifications onto the photocycle kinetics of proteorhodopsin. Our data demonstrate that a correctly folded and functionally intact protein can be produced in this artificial way. Our findings are of high relevance for a general understanding of the assembly of membrane proteins for elucidating intramolecular interactions, and they offer the possibility of developing novel labeling schemes for spectroscopic applications.     

Selective Irreversible Inhibition of Neuronal and Inducible Nitric-oxide Synthase in the Combined Presence of Hydrogen Sulfide and Nitric Oxide

Citrulline formation by both human neuronal nitric-oxide synthase (nNOS) and mouse macrophage inducible NOS was inhibited by the hydrogen sulfide (H₂S) donor Na₂S with IC₅₀ values of ∼2.4·10⁻⁵ and ∼7.9·10⁻⁵ m, respectively, whereas human endothelial NOS was hardly affected at all. Inhibition of nNOS was not affected by the concentrations of l-arginine (Arg), NADPH, FAD, FMN, tetrahydrobiopterin (BH4), and calmodulin, indicating that H₂S does not interfere with substrate or cofactor binding. The IC₅₀ decreased to ∼1.5·10⁻⁵ m at pH 6.0 and increased to ∼8.3·10⁻⁵ m at pH 8.0. Preincubation of concentrated nNOS with H₂S under turnover conditions decreased activity after dilution by ∼70%, suggesting irreversible inhibition. However, when calmodulin was omitted during preincubation, activity was not affected, suggesting that irreversible inhibition requires both H₂S and NO. Likewise, NADPH oxidation was inhibited with an IC₅₀ of ∼1.9·10⁻⁵ m in the presence of Arg and BH4 but exhibited much higher IC₅₀ values (∼1.0–6.1·10⁻⁴ m) when Arg and/or BH4 was omitted. Moreover, the relatively weak inhibition of nNOS by Na₂S in the absence of Arg and/or BH4 was markedly potentiated by the NO donor 1-(hydroxy-NNO-azoxy)-l-proline, disodium salt (IC₅₀ ∼ 1.3–2.0·10⁻⁵ m). These results suggest that nNOS and inducible NOS but not endothelial NOS are irreversibly inhibited by H₂S/NO at modest concentrations of H₂S in a reaction that may allow feedback inhibition of NO production under conditions of excessive NO/H₂S formation.     

Small protein B interacts with the large and the small subunits of a stalled ribosome during trans-translation

During trans-translation, stalled bacterial ribosomes are rescued by small protein B (SmpB) and by transfer-messenger RNA (tmRNA). Stalled ribosomes switch translation from the defective messages to a short internal reading frame on tmRNA that tags the nascent peptide chain for degradation and recycles the ribosomes. We present evidences that SmpB binds the large and small ribosomal subunits in vivo and in vitro. The binding between SmpB and the ribosomal subunits is very tight, with a dissociation constant of 1.7 × 10⁻¹⁰ M, similar to its K_D for the 70S ribosome or for tmRNA. tmRNA displaces SmpB from its 50S binding but not from the 30S. In vivo, SmpB is detected on the 50S when trans-translation is impaired by lacking tmRNA or a functional SmpB. SmpB contacts the large subunit transiently and early during the trans-translational process. The affinity of SmpB for the two ribosomal subunits is modulated by tmRNA in the course of trans-translation. It is the first example of two copies of the same protein interacting with two different functional sites of the ribosomes.     

An in vivo selection method to optimize trans-splicing ribozymes

Group I intron ribozymes can repair mutated mRNAs by replacing the 3′-terminal portion of the mRNA with their own 3′-exon. This trans-splicing reaction has the potential to treat genetic disorders and to selectively kill cancer cells or virus-infected cells. However, these ribozymes have not yet been used in therapy, partially due to a low in vivo trans-splicing efficiency. Previous strategies to improve the trans-splicing efficiencies focused on designing and testing individual ribozyme constructs. Here we describe a method that selects the most efficient ribozymes from millions of ribozyme variants. This method uses an in vivo rescue assay where the mRNA of an inactivated antibiotic resistance gene is repaired by trans-splicing group I intron ribozymes. Bacterial cells that express efficient trans-splicing ribozymes are able to grow on medium containing the antibiotic chloramphenicol. We randomized a 5′-terminal sequence of the Tetrahymena thermophila group I intron and screened a library with 9 × 10⁶ ribozyme variants for the best trans-splicing activity. The resulting ribozymes showed increased trans-splicing efficiency and help the design of efficient trans-splicing ribozymes for different sequence contexts. This in vivo selection method can now be used to optimize any sequence in trans-splicing ribozymes.