Flies kNOw how to signal

A recent study has discovered a surprising role for nitric oxide in the Drosophila immune response. NO-mediated signaling was implicated in the communication between the site of a localized infection and the major immune organ of the fly, the fat body.     

Self-incompatibility: how to stay incompatible

Plant self-incompatibility is controlled by different genes for the recognition reactions of pollen and stigmas, yet correct association of the two genes have been maintained in two Brassica species.     

Histone phosphorylation: how to proceed

Among all posttranslational modifications that occur on histone tails, phosphorylation is the one that establishes a direct link between chromatin remodeling and intracellular signaling pathways. Specific, conserved serine residues are present on the N-terminal tails of each histone. These are phosphoacceptor sites for a number of kinases, whose identification is essential to decipher the transduction routes leading to various physiological responses. In the case of histone H3, phosphorylation at the Ser10 residue may lead to either activated gene expression or chromatin condensation during mitosis. In addition, phosphorylation at specific sites may be coupled to other distinct modifications, such as acetylation and methylation, generating the so-called "histone code" which postulates that well defined combinatorial modifications at histone tails correspond to specific physiological responses. Here we describe a number of experimental methodologies that are essential for the study of histone phosphorylation. While chromatin immunoprecipitation is useful in recognizing gene targets, the in-gel kinase assay is a first, essential step in establishing the identity of the kinase(s) that operates in response to a specific signaling pathway. The subsequent use of in vitro kinase assays is helpful in validating the implication of a candidate kinase. These powerful approaches are important as identification of the signaling transduction routes leading to chromatin remodeling is critical to an understanding of all cellular processes.     

Predicting how populations decline to extinction

Global species extinction typically represents the endpoint in a long sequence of population declines and local extinctions. In comparative studies of extinction risk of contemporary mammalian species, there appear to be some universal traits that may predispose taxa to an elevated risk of extinction. In local population-level studies, there are limited insights into the process of population decline and extinction. Moreover, there is still little appreciation of how local processes scale up to global patterns. Advancing the understanding of factors which predispose populations to rapid declines will benefit proactive conservation and may allow us to target at-risk populations as well as at-risk species. Here, we take mammalian population trend data from the largest repository of population abundance trends, and combine it with the PanTHERIA database on mammal traits to answer the question: what factors can be used to predict decline in mammalian abundance? We find in general that environmental variables are better determinants of cross-species population-level decline than intrinsic biological traits. For effective conservation, we must not only describe which species are at risk and why, but also prescribe ways to counteract this.     

Amphioxus: how to become a vertebrate

Evo-devo is a young disciplin, which aims to explain the morphological evolution of organisms through developmental mechanisms and genes networks. A major question within this discipline is the origin of vertebrates. It seems now admitted that vertebrates derive from an invertebrate chordate ancestor. Several models among living chordate representatives are used today to answer this question. The small world of evo-evo interested in the emergence of vertebrates is ebullient about the advent of several totally sequenced genomes allowing comparative analyses to become evermore reliable. Furthermore "non classical" models are developed which can be submitted to refined developmental analysis. One of these is amphioxus (genus Branchyostoma), "a peaceful anchory fillet to illuminate chordate evolution" (Garcia-Fernandez, 2006a, b). The features of this model are described in this review.     

Historic dyes and how to identify them

The origin, production, and means of confirming the authenticity of some historic dyes are described. The underlying chemistry is revealed. The evolution of analytical techniques from early times, when the main criterion for a good textile dye was fitness for use, to more modern chromatographic techniques, where the emphasis is on chemical identity, is illustrated. Recent developments have led to smaller sample size requirements, greater speed of analysis and have led to a more detailed knowledge of the chemical components of historic dyes.     

Integration of molecular genetics and proteomics with cell metabolism: how to proceed; how not to proceed!

There now exists a resurgence of interest in the role of intermediary metabolism in medicine; especially in relation to medical disorders. Coupled with this is the contemporary focus on molecular biology, genetics and proteomics and their integration into studies of regulation and alterations in cellular metabolism in health and disease. This is a marriage that has vast potential for elucidation of the factors and conditions that are involved in cellular metabolic and functional changes, which heretofore could not be addressed by the earlier generations of biochemists who established the major pathways of intermediary metabolism. The achievement of this present potential requires the appropriate application and interpretation of genetic and proteomic studies relating to cell metabolism and cell function. This requires knowledge and understanding of the principles, relationships, and methodology, such as biochemistry and enzymology, which are involved in the elucidation of cellular regulatory enzymes and metabolic pathways. Unfortunately, many and possibly most contemporary molecular biologists are not adequately trained and knowledgeable in these areas of cell metabolism. This has resulted in much too common inappropriate application and misinformation from genetic/proteomic studies of cell metabolism and function. This presentation describes important relationships of cellular intermediary metabolism, and provides examples of the appropriate and inappropriate application of genetics and proteomics. It calls for the inclusion of biochemistry, enzymology, cell metabolism and cell physiology in the graduate and postgraduate training of molecular biology and other biomedical researchers.     

Cell growth: how to grow and where to grow

Root hairs provide a model system for studying tip growth in plants. The recent cloning of genes required for tip growth has shed new light on the link between ionic regulation, cell wall assembly and the cytoskeleton in cell growth.