Frugivory and seed dispersal by vertebrates in the Oriental (Indomalayan) Region

Current knowledge of frugivory and seed dispersal by vertebrates in the Oriental Region is summarized. Some degree of frugivory has been reported for many fish and reptile species, almost half the genera of non-marine mammals and more than 40% of bird genera in the region. Highly frugivorous species, for which fruit dominates the diet for at least part of the year, occur in at least two families of reptiles, 12 families of mammals and 17 families of birds. Predation on seeds in fleshy fruits is much less widespread taxonomically: the major seed predators are colobine monkeys and rodents among the mammals, and parrots, some pigeons, and finches among the birds. Most seeds in the Oriental Region, except near its northern margins, are dispersed by vertebrate families which are endemic to the region or to the Old World. Small fruits and large, soft fruits with many small seeds are consumed by a wide range of potential seed dispersal agents, including species which thrive in small forest fragments and degraded landscapes. Larger, bigger-seeded fruits are consumed by progressively fewer dispersers, and the largest depend on a few species of mammals and birds which are highly vulnerable to hunting, fragmentation and habitat loss.     

东洋界肘角广口蝇属分类研究及一新种记述（双翅目：广口蝇科）

检视和研究了东洋界肘角广口蝇属Loxoneura Macquart(双翅目：广口蝇科)的全部种类,确认目前该属共知12种。详细记述了其中的一新种：西藏肘角广口蝇L.tibetana sp. Nov.。记载了下列5种的地理分布新记录： 大斑肘角广口蝇L. fascialis Kertesz、三带肘角广口蝇L. livida Hendel和花翅肘角广口蝇L. pictipennis (Walker) 为中国新记录种;艳丽肘角广口蝇L. decora (Fabr icius) 为马来西亚和婆罗洲的新记录种;台湾肘角广口蝇L. formosae Kertesz为印度新记录种。讨论了肘角广口蝇属的属征,并提供全部已知种类（除老挝肘角广口蝇 L. vitalisiana Frey外）的鉴别特征、分种检索表及其有关特征图。     

Further new species of the plant bug genus Campylomma Reuter from the Oriental Region (Heteroptera: Miridae: Phylinae: Nasocorini)

The fauna of the nasocorine plant bug genus Campylomma Reuter from the Oriental Region, including subtropical Japanese Ryukyu Islands (Okinawa Island of Southwest Islands-group) and Taiwan is updated. Three new species are herein described, C. astica n. sp. (from Okinawa and Taoyuan, Taiwan), C. hibiscicola n. sp. (Bangkok, Thailand) and C. nanrenana n. sp. (Pingtung, Taiwan). Of these, C. astica and C. hibiscicola, were observed to have cryptic habitat-preference, inhabiting bracts, stipules or flower buds of the sea (or coastal) hibiscus, Hibiscus tiliaceus (L.) (Malvaceae), planted for landscaping at urbanized zones. An updated checklist of the 22 Oriental Campylomma species is provided.     

东南亚兰科植物的物种多样性、生活习性及其传粉系统（附表）

兰科(Orchidaceae)植物广布于除两极和极端沙漠地区外的各种陆地生态系统,包括5个亚科800多属28 000多种。东南亚地区兰科植物种数约占世界的1/3,是兰科植物生物多样性热点区域之一。通过查阅文献及书籍等资料,该文系统整理了东南亚兰科植物物种种类及其扩散演化历史,并对其生活习性和传粉系统进行了归类。结果表明:(1)东南亚兰科植物8 855种,分属5亚科17族26亚族240属;(2)主要生活型为附生的有127属6 000种以上,地生97属2 000种以上,腐生13属约100种,藤本4属40余种;(3)根据整理出的东南亚79个属的兰科植物传粉系统发现,有44个属含有自动自交的物种,具报酬物的传粉系统有花粉(仅见于拟兰亚科)、芳香类物质(仅见于香荚兰亚科)和花蜜(5个亚科均有)等报酬物类型。欺骗性传粉系统广泛存在于各个亚科,包括食源性欺骗、性拟态、繁殖地拟态和信息素拟态等类型。东南亚兰科植物在物种、生活习性及传粉系统都展现出极高的多样性,对这些生物学特点的总结将为兰科植物的保育提供一定的理论基础和本底资料。     

圆唇苣苔属(Gyrocheilos)花柱侧偏弯折现象及其传粉适应机制

圆唇苣苔属(Gyrocheilos)是苦苣苔科的中国特有属,有5种,全部狭域分布在我国西南及广东的高海拔山区。圆唇苣苔属所有物种的花柱侧偏且花柱顶端呈90°弯折,使得柱头位于花开口的中央位置。这种独特的侧偏弯折花柱结构,说明圆唇苣苔属可能有着特殊的演化历史和适应机制。为揭示这种特殊的花柱侧偏弯折现象的发生范围、发育过程及其传粉适应机制,该研究在圆唇苣苔(Gyrocheilos chorisepalus)、折毛圆唇苣苔(G. retrotrichus)和微毛圆唇苣苔(G. microtrichus)3个物种中开展了花部综合征观察,并研究了广东大雾岭保护区内的折毛圆唇苣苔花发育过程、花部特征和繁育系统以及传粉过程。结果表明:(1)微毛圆唇苣苔只有花柱左偏弯折现象,而圆唇苣苔和折毛圆唇苣苔虽然大部分花是花柱左偏弯折,但在部分个体中出现了少量的花柱右偏弯折现象(占种群总花数的2%～3%)。(2)传粉观察发现,折毛圆唇苣苔在花蕾期即出现了花柱弯折现象,2个可育雄蕊的花药合生、位于花冠筒喉部中央位置,与侧偏花柱不存在左右镜像对称关系。(3)折毛圆唇苣苔的花粉胚珠比(P/O)为456.98±15.55,属于兼性异交繁育系统。折毛圆唇苣苔存在一定的传粉限制,自交授粉可以结实,但异交种子萌发率更高,可能存在近交衰退。(4)折毛圆唇苣苔的访花昆虫较少,访花频率较低,主要访花昆虫有隧蜂、熊蜂、食蚜蝇等; 熊蜂体型较大,访花时降落在弯折花柱和花瓣下唇,胸部侧面及下部能有效接触到柱头。(5)反射率结果显示,折毛圆唇苣苔花瓣反射波长范围集中在紫光和蓝紫光区域,花冠的反射波长范围与蜂类视觉范围一致且花冠筒外侧和花瓣下唇的反射强度最大,更容易吸引蜂类落置在花冠宽大的下唇; 圆唇苣苔属的花柱侧偏弯折现象可能来自近缘的长蒴苣苔属(Didymocarpus)的花柱下弯现象或镜像花(mirror-image flowers)。综上认为,这种侧偏弯折的花柱,可能通过提供昆虫降落平台,使得柱头位于花开口中央和花瓣下唇的上方位置,提高了柱头接触访花昆虫的概率,是适应高海拔地区低频率访花者的一种机制。     

黑果枸杞两种花型的花部综合征与传粉特性

黑果枸杞(Lycium ruthenicum)是中国西北地区极端环境中分布的国家二级保护植物, 该物种在新疆南部的自然种群中出现了同型花柱类型(同位花)和柱头探出式雌雄异位类型(异位花)个体, 并且遭遇沙尘暴频繁的种群中异位花个体出现频率减少。该研究对喀什市自然种群中黑果枸杞两种不同花型植株的花部综合征和传粉特性进行比较研究, 以期探讨该物种不同花型植株在南疆早春极端环境中的花部特征的可塑性及其适应性机制。结果表明: 同位花雌雄蕊高度间无显著差异, 而异位花雌蕊高度显著高于雄蕊; 同位花花冠直径、花冠筒长、胚珠数均高于异位花, 而异位花雌雄蕊空间距离、花粉数及花粉胚珠比均比同位花高。黑果枸杞同位花个体比例(68%)高于异位花个体(32%), 种群水平及个体水平同位花花期((117.00 ± 2.25) d, (101.65 ± 1.98) d)比异位花((26.00 ± 1.00) d, (18.75 ± 1.00) d)长, 而单花水平上异位花单花寿命((4.50 ± 0.14) d)比同位花((3.13 ± 0.11) d)长。两种类型花在花早期(紫色)分泌的花蜜量均高于花后期(白色)。在紫色花阶段(花开放早期), 同位花上的主要传粉者意大利蜜蜂、熊蜂和食蚜蝇的访花频率和停留时间均高于异位花; 而白色花阶段(花开放后期)意大利蜜蜂、熊蜂在异位花上的访花频率比同位花高。在不同花色阶段, 同位花柱头花粉落置数、花粉移出率、花粉传递效率均比异位花高, 并且同位花自然坐果率及结籽率均比异位花高。在新疆南部的沙尘暴极端环境下, 同位花通过较高的自交亲和性保障繁殖, 而异交为主的异位花提高了异交率。异位花与同位花在花部综合征和花报酬上的差异, 是影响其繁殖成功的主要因素。     

天南星科植物的花多样性与传粉策略

天南星科植物具有特殊的佛焰苞花序及多样化的传粉策略, 是研究被子植物花的分化与动植物之间进化生态学联系的理想材料。本文简述了天南星科不同类型的花序结构及其传粉适应意义, 总结了天南星科传粉策略的基本类型与演化历史。天南星科的苞片结构主要包括原始型、外展平面型、直立宽佛焰苞型和直立狭佛焰苞4种类型, 呈现出从简单的片状与外展平面状结构向复杂的立体包裹状的佛焰苞结构演化的趋势。肉穗花序可分为两性花花序、单性花雌雄同序和单性花雌雄异序3种类型, 演化路线为两性花花序→单性花雌雄同序→单性花雌雄异序。天南星科的传粉者主要有鞘翅目、双翅目、膜翅目昆虫, 表现出5种主要传粉策略: 食物报酬型互利传粉、气味吸引型欺骗性传粉、交配场所型互利传粉、产卵场所型互利传粉和致死陷阱型欺骗性传粉。天南星科植物通过花序的形状、颜色、产热以及花部挥发物来吸引传粉者, 其中最主要的挥发物有二甲基硫化物、甲基吲哚化合物、萜类和苯类化合物, 模拟食物或产卵场所信号吸引鞘翅目甲虫和双翅目昆虫为其传粉。天南星科植物的佛焰苞被认为是促进该科物种分化的一个重要结构, 但该性状的演化历史及其与传粉系统分化之间的内在联系尚不明确。利用现代分子生物学技术以及模型模拟等手段, 结合生理生态学方法深入探究传粉事件与天南星科植物的花多样性以及物种分化之间的联系, 有望提升关于植物-传粉者互作与植物的花多样性分化之间关系的认识, 并丰富对被子植物多样性演化相关研究的理解。     

Description of Hydrobius orientalis sp. n., the first species of the subtribe Hydrobiusina from the Oriental Region (Coleoptera: Hydrophilidae: Hydrophilini)

The first Oriental species of the water scavenger beetle subtribe Hydrobiusina, Hydrobius orientalis sp. n., is described and illustrated from Guandong Province, China. It is unique in the subtribe by lacking elytral serial punctures. The species appears most closely related to Hydrobius melaenus (Germar, 1824) of eastern North America.     

Key to Dohrniphora males (Diptera: Phoridae) of the Australasian and Oriental Regions with descriptions of new species

A key to males of the Australasian and Oriental species of Dohrniphora is provided. Twenty-five new species are described and two new synonyms proposed.     

Key to Dohrniphora males (Diptera: Phoridae) of the Australasian and Oriental Regions with descriptions of new species

A key to males of the Australasian and Oriental species of Dohrniphora is provided. Twenty-five new species are described and two new synonyms proposed.     

The Species and Size Composition of Tropical Freshwater Zooplankton with Special Reference to the Oriental Region (South East Asia)

A contrast between temperate and tropical Cladocera, Copepoda and Rotifera zooplankton fauna shows a markedly different size composition and species diversity. There are fewer species, and these are generally smaller in the tropics than in either the North or South Temperate Zones. Larger species of the genera Daphnia and Simocephalus are relatively rare in the tropics, while members of Eurycerus and Saycia are absent. Members of the families Holopedidae, Leptodoridae and Polyphemidae increase in abundance toward the temperate regions. Two small cyclopoid copepods are common in tropical zooplankton, while many of the common larger species of other regions are absent or very rare. The chief rotifer components are Keratella tropica and species of Brachionus.     

Corolla herbivory, pollination success and fruit predation in complex flowers: an experimental study with Linaria lilacina (Scrophulariaceae)

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: Herbivory on floral structures has been postulated to influence the evolution of floral traits in some plant species, and may also be an important factor influencing the occurrence and outcome of subsequent biotic interactions related to floral display. In particular, corolla herbivory may affect structures differentially involved in flower selection by pollinators and fruit predators (specifically, those ovopositing in ovaries prior to fruit development); hence floral herbivores may influence the relationships between these mutualistic and antagonistic agents. METHODS: The effects of corolla herbivory in Linaria lilacina (Scrophulariaceae), a plant species with complex flowers, were considered in relation to plant interactions with pollinators and fruit predators. Tests were made as to whether experimentally created differences in flower structure (resembling those occurring naturally) may translate into differences in reproductive output in terms of fruit or seed production. KEY RESULTS: Flowers with modified corollas, particularly those with lower lips removed, were less likely to be selected by pollinators than control flowers, and were less likely to be successfully visited and pollinated. As a consequence, fruit production was also less likely in these modified flowers. However, none of the experimental treatments affected the likelihood of visitation by fruit predators. CONCLUSIONS: Since floral herbivory may affect pollinator visitation rates and reduce seed production, differences among plants in the proportion of flowers affected by herbivory and in the intensity of the damage inflicted on affected flowers may result in different opportunities for reproduction for plants in different seasons.     

Ricochet pollination in Senna (Fabaceae) – petals deflect pollen jets and promote division of labour among flower structures

• Naturalists Fritz and Hermann Müller hypothesised that heteranthery often leads to a division of labour into ‘feeding’ and ‘pollinating’ stamens; the latter often being as long as the pistil so as to promote successful pollination on the bees’ back. In many buzz‐pollinated species of Senna, however, the so‐called pollinating stamens are short and not level with the stigma, raising the question of how pollen is shed on the bees’ back. Here we explore a mechanism called ‘ricochet pollination’. We test whether division of labour is achieved through the interaction between short lower stamens and strongly concave ‘deflector petals’.
• We studied the arrangement and morphology of the floral organs involved in the ricochet pollination, functioning of the flowers through artificial sonication and observed the interactions between bees and flowers in the field.
• The middle stamens are adapted to eject pollen downwards, which can be readily collected on the bee mid legs. Most of the pollen is ejected towards the deflector petal(s). Pollen from this set of stamens is more likely to contribute to pollination. The pollen grains seem to ricochet multiple times against the deflector petals to eventually reach the bee's back.
• The pollen ricochet mechanism promotes a division of labour by involving additional floral organs, such as petals, reinforcing the Müllers’ division‐of‐labour hypothesis. However, alternative, non‐multiexclusive hypotheses could be explored in genus Senna and other angiosperm species.

     

Hydrophilous pollination and reproductive morphology in the seagrassPhyllospadix scouleri (Zosteraceae)

In the seagrassPhyllospadix scouleri (Zosteraceae) floral aggregates (spadices) occur on short lateral axes produced by subordinate vegetative shoots. The filamentous pollen is both dispersed on the surface of the sea as well as below the surface. In surface pollination, snowflake-like search vehicles (pollen rafts) float and collide with any rigid female inflorescences that emerge from the water surface. In submarine pollination, collinear bundles of pollen grains are dispersed. Analysis of seed set indicates ovule position within the inflorescence to affect likelihood of fertilization in submarine, but not surface-pollinated inflorescences. Agamospermy appears to be unlikely, but the strongly female-biased shoot sex ratio remains to be explained.     

The spider family Selenopidae (Arachnida, Araneae) in Australasia and the Oriental Region

We relimit and revise the family Selenopidae to include four new genera and 27 new species from Australia and the Oriental Region. The family is redefined, as are the genera Anyphops Benoit, Garcorops Corronca, Hovops Benoit, Selenops Latreille, and Siamspinops Dankittipakul & Corronca, to accommodate the new genera and to correct previous inconsistencies in the diagnoses and definitions of the aforementioned genera. The species of Selenops that occur throughout India and China are also reviewed. Three species occur in China: Selenops bursarius Karsch 1879, also known from Japan, Korea and Taiwan, Selenops ollarius Zhu, Sha, & Chen 1990, and Selenops radiatus Latreille 1819, the type of the genus and most widespread selenopid. Selenops cordatus Zhu, Sha & Chen syn. n. is recognized as a junior synonym of Selenops radiatus. Amamanganopsgen. n. is monotypic, with Amamanganops baginawasp. n. (♀; from the Philippines). Godumopsgen. n. is monotypic, with Godumops caritussp. n. (♂; from Papua New Guinea). Karaopsgen. n. occurs throughout Australia and includes 24 species. A new combination is proposed for Karaops australiensis (L. Koch 1875) comb. n. (ex. Selenops), and the new species: Karaops gangariesp. n. (♀, ♂), Karaops monteithisp. n. (♀), Karaops alanlongbottomisp. n. (♂), Karaops keithlongbottomisp. n. (♂), Karaops larryoosp. n. (♂), Karaops jarritsp. n. (♂,♀), Karaops marrayagongsp. n. (♀), Karaops ravenisp. n. (♂,♀), Karaops badgeraddasp. n. (♀), Karaops burbidgeisp. n. (♂,♀), Karaops karrawarlasp. n. (♂,♀), Karaops julianneaesp. n. (♀), Karaops martamartasp. n. (♀), Karaops manaaynsp. n. (♀, ♂), Karaops vadlaadambarasp. n. (♀, ♂), Karaops pilkingtonisp. n. (♀, ♂), Karaops deserticolasp. n. (♀), Karaops ngarutjaranyasp. n. (♂,♀), Karaops francesaesp. n. (♂,♀), Karaops toolbrunupsp. n. (♀, ♂), the type species Karaops ellenaesp. n. (♂,♀), Karaops jenniferaesp. n. (♀), and Karaops dawarasp. n. (♀).The genus Makdiopsgen. n. contains five species from India and Nepal. A new combination is proposed for Makdiops agumbensis (Tikader 1969), comb. n., Makdiops montigenus (Simon 1889), comb. n., Makdiops nilgirensis (Reimoser 1934) comb. n.,(ex. Selenops). Also, there are two new species the type of the genus Makdiops mahishasurasp. n. (♀; from India), and Makdiops shivasp. n. (♀). The genus Pakawopsgen. n. is monotypic. A new combination is proposed for Pakawops formosanus (Kayashima 1943) comb. n. (ex. Selenops), known only from Taiwan. A new combination is proposed for Siamspinops aculeatus (Simon)comb. n. (ex. Selenops). The distribution and diversity of the studied selenopid fauna is discussed. Finally, keys are provided to all of the selenopid genera and to the species of Karaopsgen. n.and Makdiopsgen. n.     

Moonlight pollination in the gymnosperm Ephedra (Gnetales)

Most gymnosperms are wind-pollinated, but some are insect-pollinated, and in Ephedra (Gnetales), both wind pollination and insect pollination occur. Little is, however, known about mechanisms and evolution of pollination syndromes in gymnosperms. Based on four seasons of field studies, we show an unexpected correlation between pollination and the phases of the moon in one of our studied species, Ephedra foeminea. It is pollinated by dipterans and lepidopterans, most of them nocturnal, and its pollination coincides with the full moon of July. This may be adaptive in two ways. Many nocturnal insects navigate using the moon. Further, the spectacular reflection of the full-moonlight in the pollination drops is the only apparent means of nocturnal attraction of insects in these plants. In the sympatric but wind-pollinated Ephedra distachya, pollination is not correlated to the full moon but occurs at approximately the same dates every year. The lunar correlation has probably been lost in most species of Ephedra subsequent an evolutionary shift to wind pollination in the clade. When the services of insects are no longer needed for successful pollination, the adaptive value of correlating pollination with the full moon is lost, and conceivably also the trait.     

广西西大明山冠斑犀鸟的繁殖生物学

作者于2014和2015年在广西西南部的西大明山自治区级自然保护区研究冠斑犀鸟(Anthracoceros albirostris)的繁殖生物学特征,以直接观察法或红外相机共观察5巢犀鸟,2014年2巢,2015年3巢。研究显示,西大明山的冠斑犀鸟在每年4月下旬至5月下旬开始营巢繁殖,雌鸟进入巢洞并在雄鸟协助下自封在其内,期间与幼鸟完全依靠雄鸟喂食。雄鸟带回巢的食物中,数量上有超过80%是果实。雌鸟在封巢期间完成换羽,并和幼鸟在7月中旬至8月中旬破巢而出,封巢时间为89 d和93 d(n=2),繁殖成功率为100%(n=4),平均出巢幼鸟为(2.3±0.5)只(2或3只,n=4)。营巢树与人工林/林下作物的平均距离为87 m(0～210 m,n=3),其中,两棵生长在当地人经常使用的山路旁。营巢树种分别为南酸枣(Choerospondias axillaris)及金叶树(Chrysophyllum lanceolatum),营巢树平均胸径为73.7 cm(72.0～75.0 cm,n=3),巢洞高度为7.8 m和9.0 m(n=2)。其中两棵营巢树在2014年和2015年的繁殖季均被重...     

Senwot Wharton,a new genus for the Oriental region with description of two new species from Thailand (Hymenoptera: Braconidae: Alysiinae)

SenwotWharton 1983, is a small braconid genus with only two previously described species. The genus is revised using morphological characters and a phylogenetic analysis of COI sequence. Senwot Wharton is reported for the first time from Thailand and two new species: Senwot yinxianggaoae Yao n. sp. and Senwot jiyuanyaoi Yao n. sp. are described and illustrated. A key to species of the genus Senwot is presented.www.zoobank.org/urn:lsid:zoobank.org:pub:D7E79499-491E-4845-991B-0FE763A45162