Distribution and reproduction strategies of krill (Euphausiacea) on the Norwegian shelf

Meganyctiphanes norvegica and Thysanoessa inermis were the dominant krill species that were observed on the Norwegian shelf. T. inermis and M. norvegica were found in abundances of up to 14 and 22 no. m^?2, respectively, on the mid Norwegian shelf (Møre plateau, Halten, Sklinna, Træna banks) and up to the Lofoten area. The main distribution of the krill indicates that they are mostly restricted to the Atlantic waters of the shelf region in April and little krill was observed south of 62°N. The two dominant krill species appeared to have different strategies for the timing of spawning, thus avoiding direct overlap of spawning products. The majority of the T. inermis females were in the spawning condition in April. Meganyctiphanes norvegica appeared to spawn at least a month later. The sizes of the first time spawners of T. inermis were around 11–16 mm, and they were approximately 1 year old. The sizes of the second time spawners were around 17–22 mm. The spawning of krill on the Norwegian shelf coincides with the blooming of the spring phytoplankton in this region . Advection of eggs and larvae of krill, as well as other plankton, is important not only to the shelf and slope region, but also for the functioning of the wider Norwegian Sea ecosystem and the adjacent areas.     

Environmental factors controlling seed germination and seedling recruitment of Stipa bungeana on the Loess Plateau of northwestern China

Germination studies are important for collecting information on field seedling recruitment, plant conservation and restoration. This study investigated the role of light, temperature, nitrogen, water stress and burial depth in controlling germination of Stipa bungeana seeds. S. bungeana seeds are photo-inhibited; light significantly decreased seed germination regardless of temperature and water conditions. Seeds germinated at 10–30° C, and the highest germination was 72 % and 88 % at 20° C in light and dark, respectively. Thermal model analysis showed that presence of light significantly increased average thermal requirement [θ _T (50)] from 105°Cd to 186°Cd at sub-optimal temperature, implying that light delays seed germination. Hydrotime model analysis showed that presence of light caused a shift in the median base water potential [Ψ _b(50)] from ?0.68 to ?0.26 MPa, which partly explains why light decreased both percentage and speed of germination, even at optimal conditions. As burial depth increased, seedling emergence initially increased and then decreased; the highest seedling emergence recruitment was 43 %, for seeds buried at a depth of 1 cm. Field observations showed that seedling emergence occurred primarily from July to September, and scarcely occurred from April to June. These results suggest that the light inhibitory effect is an adaptive mechanism that prevents S. bungeana seeds from germinating on the soil surface. To attain highest seedling establishment, seeds of S. bungeana should be sown at a soil depth of 1 cm prior to the rainy season, using seeds stored for 1 year.     

Association of methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase gene 677C > T polymorphism and Down syndrome

The association between Down syndrome (DS) and maternal polymorphisms in genes encoding folic acid metabolizing enzymes remains a controversial issue. A meta-analysis was performed to evaluate the association of maternal MTHFR 677C > T polymorphism and the risk of having a child with DS. Case–control studies were screened from major literature databases. Twenty articles from 13 countries worldwide, with a total of 2,101 DS and 2,702 control mothers, attended the inclusion criteria. We found a 50 % increase for the association of maternal homozygous TT genotype and DS in both fixed (OR = 1.51; 95 % CI 1.22–1.87) and random effects models (OR 1.54; 95 % 1.15–2.05). Similarly, a significant pooled OR was found for the heterozygote CT, with an OR 1.26; 95 % CI 1.10–1.43 (fixed effects model) and OR 1.28; 95 % 1.08–1.51 (random effects model). As ultra-violet B solar radiation highly depends on latitude, and can promote, in less pigmented skin, intravascular folate photolysis, we stratified the analysis by latitude region, defining as Tropical (between 23.5^° S and 23.5^° N), Sub-Tropical (between 23.5^° and 40^° N and S), and Northern (≥40^o N). Significant association was only found for Sub-Tropical area, both using fixed and random effect models. In conclusion, MTHFR 677C > T polymorphism is a moderate risk factor for DS for some populations, and populations located in Sub-Tropical region seem to be at greater risk. Latitude, ethnicity, skin pigmentation, and red blood cell folate are important variables to be considered in future studies.     

Evaluation of a combined brown rot decay–chemical delignification process as a pretreatment for bioethanol production from Pinus radiata wood chips

Wood chips of Pinus radiata softwood were biotreated with the brown rot fungus (BRF) Gloeophyllum trabeum for periods from 4 and 12 weeks. Biodegradation by BRF leads to an increase in cellulose depolymerization with increasing incubation time. As a result, the intrinsic viscosity of holocellulose decreased from 1,487 cm³/g in control samples to 783 and 600 cm³/g in 4- and 12-week decayed wood chips, respectively. Wood weight and glucan losses varied from 6 to 14% and 9 to 21%, respectively. Undecayed and 4-week decayed wood chips were delignified by alkaline (NaOH solution) or organosolv (ethanol/water) processes to produced cellulosic pulps. For both process, pulp yield was 5–10% lower for decayed samples than for control pulps. However, organosolv bio-pulps presented low residual lignin amount and high glucan retention. Chemical pulps and milled wood from undecayed and 4-week decayed wood chips were pre-saccharified with cellulases for 24 h at 50°C followed by simultaneous saccharification and fermentation (SSF) with the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae IR2-9a at 40°C for 96 h for bioethanol production. Considering glucan losses during wood decay and conversion yields from chemical pulping and SSF processes, no gains in ethanol production were obtained from the combination of BRF with alkaline delignification; however, the combination of BRF and organosolv processes resulted in a calculated production of 210 mL ethanol/kg wood or 72% of the maximum theoretically possible from that pretreatment, which was the best result obtained in the present study.     

Abundance and reproductive patterns of the excavating sponge Cliona vermifera: a threat to Pacific coral reefs?

Cliona vermifera is a common excavating sponge in coral reefs from the East Pacific. Abundance and reproductive patterns of the sponge in a Mexican Pacific coral reef over a 4-year period are herein described. Sponge abundance was estimated along three transects 50 m long which were randomly placed on the reef, and along each one, a piece of coral rubble and a branch of a live coral from the Pocillopora spp. coral colony closest to the transect were collected at random, approximately every 2 m, yielding 25 pieces of each category per transect (and 75 pieces total of each category). A 2-way ANOVA revealed that invasion was significantly higher in living coral colonies (34.8 %) than in rubble (13.7 %). It also indicated that the abundance in both coralline substrates showed a temporal variation without a clear pattern of increase over the years. It was estimated that 60–85 % of sponges in the population reproduced sexually every year. The sponge proved gonochoristic, with a sex ratio strongly departing from parity (1 male: 3 females). Over the 4-year study period, at least two cohorts of oocytes with densities of up to 3.5 oocytes per mm² tissue were observed. Spermatogenesis lasted about a month, but often producing more than a pulse from July to November, coupled with peaks of oocyte maturation. Fertilization occurred internally to produce encapsulated zygotes that were released in one or more spawning events from July to November. In the following months (December to February), which were the periods of lowest temperature (~18.5–20 °C), no gametic activity occurred in the sponges. Because anomalous temperature rises that are detrimental to corals do not appear to negatively affect the reproduction and abundance of C. vermifera, it is likely that the excavating activity of this sponge may be compromising the health of those coral reefs that are recurrently affected by episodes of thermal stress.     

Formulation Screening and Freeze-Drying Process Optimization of Ginkgolide B Lyophilized Powder for Injection

The purpose of this study was to prepare ginkgolide B (GB) lyophilized powder for injection with excellent appearance and stable quality through a formulation screening and by optimizing the freeze-drying process. Cremophor EL as a solubilizer, PEG 400 as a latent solvent, and mannitol as an excipient were mixed to increase the solubility of GB in water to more than 18 times (about from 2.5 × 10^?4 mol/L (0.106 mg/mL) to 1.914 mg/mL). Formulation screening was conducted by orthogonal design where the content of GB in the solution before lyophilization (using external standard method of HPLC) and reconstitution time after lyophilization were the two evaluation indexes. The optimized formulations were GB in an amount of 2 mg/mL, Cremophor EL in an amount of 16% (v/v), PEG 400 in an amount of 9% (v/v), mannitol in an amount of 8% (w/v), and the solution pH of 6.5. Through four single-factor experiments (GB adding order, preparation temperature of GB solution, adding amount, and adsorption time of activated carbon), the preparation process of GB solution was confirmed. The glass transition temperature of maximally GB freeze-concentrated solution was ? 17.6°C through the electric resistance method. GB lyophilized powder began to collapse at ? 14.0°C, and the fully collapsed temperature was ? 13.0°C, which were determined by freeze-drying microscope. When the collapse temperature was determined, the primary drying temperature was obtained. Thereby, the freeze-drying curve of GB lyophilized powder was initially identified. The freeze-drying process was optimized by orthogonal design, the qualified product appearance and residual moisture content were the two evaluation indexes. The optimized process parameters and process were (1) shelf temperature, decreased from room temperature to ? 45.0°C, at 0.5°C/min in 2 h; (2) shelf temperature increased from ? 45.0 to ? 25.0°C, at 0.1°C/min, maintained for 3 h, and the chamber pressure was held at 10 Pa; (3) shelf temperature was increased from ? 25.0 to ? 15.0°C at 0.1 °C/min, maintained for 4 h, and the chamber pressure was held at 10 Pa; and (4) shelf temperature was increased from ? 15.0 to 20.0°C at 1.0 °C/min, maintained for 4 h, and the chamber pressure was raised up to 80 Pa. In these lyophilization process conditions, the products complied with relevant provisions of the lyophilized powders for injection. Meanwhile, the reproducibility was satisfactory. Post-freezing annealing had no significantly beneficial effects on shortening the freeze-drying cycle and improving the quality of GB lyophilized powder.     

Properties of a membrane-attached form of the folded chromosome of Escherichia coli

Two types of DNA-containing particles are released from lysozyme-produced Escherichia coli spheroplasts after gentle lysis with non-ionic detergents in 1.-0 m-NaCl. Lysis at 25 °C releases the folded chromosomes (1300 S to 2200 S particles). Lysis at 10 °C results in faster sedimenting structures (3000 S to 4000 S). Both types of particles coexist in extracts of cells lysed at intermediate temperatures, i.e. 15 °C.The 3000 S to 4000 S particles are folded chromosomes attached to membrane fragments; they contain membrane proteins and phospholipids in addition to the folded DNA and nascent RNA chains. Incubation of the membrane-attached chromosomes with 1% Sarkosyl releases the folded chromosomes; this Sarkosyl treatment removes the membrane proteins and phospholipids, and halves the sedimentation velocity of the particles, but has no effect on the folded DNA and nascent RNA chains.Membrane-attached chromosomes cannot be isolated from amino acid-starved cells which have completed their rounds of DNA replication; all of the DNA then appears as released folded chromosomes. After resumption of protein synthesis, chromosome attachment to the membrane precedes the initiation of DNA replication. Controls strongly suggest that the changes observed, i.e. the attachment and release from the membrane of the folded chromosome, are related to the act of DNA replication itself.     

The Altitudinal Limit of Beech Woods in the Northern Apennines (Italy). Its Spatial Pattern and Some Thermal Inferences

The spatial pattern of the altitudinal limit of beech woods in the Northern Apennines and its correlation with the Fagus sylvatica thermal requirements were studied. The study area was the whole northern side of the Northern Apennines (latitude 44° N), including a timberline. The pattern was described on a scale of 1:25,000, using digitized phytosociological vegetation maps. The timberline elevation ranges from 1,200 to 1,825 m a.s.l., with the highest range at 1,525 to 1,725 m and a peak (13%) at 1,600–1,625 m. As suggested by the known beech thermal requirements, the following thermal parameters were considered: mean annual temperature, mean of the coldest month (January), mean of the warmest month (July); days with maximum temperatures >10°C and summer mean (June to September). The values were calculated using data for 1951–2002 from six weather stations. The present upper timberline (1,825 m) corresponds to the following: i) mean annual temperature of 4.5°C; ii) coldest month mean temperature of ?2.3°C; iii) summer mean of 11.5°C; iv) warmest month mean temperature of 13°C; v) 139 days with maximum temperatures of 10°C or higher. The mean temperature of the warmest month corresponds to the July mean temperature in maritime mountains, such as the Appalachians and the New Zealand Alps (13°C). The geographical location of the Northern Apennines close to the Mediterranean Sea seems to indicate that such a conclusion is reliable. With reference to the elevation variability of the upper timberline, the multiple regression shows that the annual mean is the best explaining thermal parameter (P?<?0.05). Our thermal data do not take into account the atmospheric phenomena that can affect the temperature lapse rate with altitude, such as the cloudiness of the chain, and site factors, such as wind-exposed topography and snow cover duration, which play a crucial role in the Northern Apennine local climate.     

Optimization of storage condition for maintaining long-term viability of nematophagous fungus Esteya vermicola as biocontrol agent against pinewood nematode

The fungus, Esteya vermicola has been proposed as biocontrol agent against pine wilting disease caused by Bursaphelenchus xylophilus. In this study, we reported the effects of temperature and different additives on the viability and biocontrol efficacy of E. vermicola formulated by alginate-clay. The viability of the E. vermicola formulation was determined for six consecutive months at temperature ranged from ?70 to 25 °C. The fresh conidia without any treatment were used as control. Under the optimal storage conditions with E. vermicola alginate-clay formulation, the results suggested that E. vermicola alginate-clay formulation with a long shelf life could be a non-vacuum-packed formulation that contains 2 % sodium alginate and 5 % clay at 4 °C. Three conidial formulations prepared with additives of 15 % glycerol, 0.5 % yeast extract and 0.5 % herbal extraction, respectively significantly improved the shelf life. In addition, these tested formulations retained the same biocontrol efficacy as the fresh conidial against pinewood nematode. This study provided a tractable and low-cost method to preserve the shelf life of E. vermicola.     

Population dynamics, growth and reproduction of Corophium insidiosum (Crustacea: Amphipoda) at low salinities in Monolimni lagoon (Evros Delta, North Aegean Sea)

Distribution, population dynamics, growth and aspects of reproductive biology of Corophium insidiosum were investigated in Monolimni lagoon. Samples were collected in July 1997 (at 30 psu S) and during February 1998–May 1999 (at 0.1–5.7 psu S). Corophium insidiosumwas almost exclusively found in the outer part of the lagoon, which showed a higher water renewal rate. Population density gradually decreased during winter and spring, when salinity was lower than 1 psu and the amphipod finally vanished from the lagoon. Salinity increase during summer (1.2–5.7 psu) was followed by the re-occurrence of C. insidiosum with a time lag of 2–3 months. Population density increased in autumn and peaked in early winter at salinities 1.6–4.2 psu. Three cohorts appeared in the population during September 1998–March 1999. Breeding activity peaked in early autumn (14–21?°C, 4 psu S) and ceased after December (2–6.5?°C, ¡1.5 psu S). The preponderance of females in the large size classes resulted in a female- biased sex ratio in the whole population. The population showed a growth rate of 7.5–11.2 μm d^?1 being faster in autumn (9–21?°C, 3–4 psu S) than in winter (2–12?°C, 0.2–3 psu). An exponential relation existed between body length and cephalic length or dry body weight, while brood size was directly related to body length. Mean brood size was small (4.96 early embryos) and egg loss during development high (53%), possibly as a consequence of low salinities.     

Post-fallow decomposition of woody roots in the West African savanna

Potassium (K), calcium (Ca), iron (Fe) and aluminium (Al) release from Norway spruce (Picea abies Karsten), Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) and silver birch (Betula pendula Roth.) logging residues (fine roots, foliage and small branches) were studied by means of litterbags over a period of three years in clear-cut area and adjacent uncut Norway spruce dominated mixed boreal forest in eastern Finland (63°51′ N, 28°58′ E, 220 m a.s.l) to determine the amounts and rates of release for these elements and to evaluate whether clear-cutting accelerates mineralization. Almost all K was released from logging residues already during the first year. Calcium was released from foliage and roots but accumulated in branches. Most of the roots Fe and Al content were released during three years while the absolute amounts of Fe and Al in branches and foliage generally increased with decomposition. The results indicate that mineralization is slightly accelerated as a result of clear-cutting since K from foliage and branches of all studied tree species and Ca from pine and spruce roots was released significantly faster at the clear-cut plot than at the forest plot. In three years the initial K pool in the logging residues declined by 90%, Ca by 8%, Fe by 55% and Al by 61% in the clear-cut area. These results indicate that Ca is retained a long time; but Fe, Al and in particular, K are soon released from logging residues. Fine roots of the logged trees release large amounts of Fe and Al and can significantly affect Fe and Al fluxes.     

Archival tagging reveals swimming depth and ambient and peritoneal cavity temperature in age-0 Pacific bluefin tuna, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Thunnus orientalis</Emphasis>, off the southern coast of Japan

Although archival tags have been deployed in Thunnus since the early 1990s, few studies have placed such loggers on the small-size growth stage. In this study, Pacific bluefin tuna (PBT, Thunnus orientalis) 20–26.5 cm in fork length (FL) were fitted with archival tags and released off the southern coastal area of Japan from July to August in 2012, 2013, and 2014. Time-series data on swimming depth, ambient water temperature, and peritoneal cavity temperatures collected at 30-s intervals during 78–144 days were analyzed in 11 age-0 PBT. In August, the age-0 PBT spent 69.5 to 83.4% of their time within the mixed layer at mean temperatures between 27.6 and 28.3 °C, while previous studies reported that PBT with FL > 50 cm in the East China Sea are found most often in zones with temperatures between 14 and 19 °C. The thermal difference between the peritoneal cavity and ambient temperature was less than 1 °C for age-0 PBT in August, indicating that they were not in danger of overheating. The mean daytime swimming depths of age-0 PBT were significantly and positively correlated with the depth of the thermocline, especially from August to October. By focusing their swimming depths around the thermocline, the age-0 PBT potentially maximize the probability of encountering prey. There was a significant correlation between the mean nighttime depth and lunar illumination. The change in vertical distribution with the lunar cycle during nighttime is likely a form of predator avoidance.     

Are winter-active species vulnerable to climate warming? A case study with the wintergreen terrestrial orchid,Tipularia discolor

In the eastern United States, winter temperature has been increasing nearly twice as fast as summer temperature, but studies of warming effects on plants have focused on species that are photosynthetically active in summer. The terrestrial orchid Tipularia discolor is leafless in summer and acquires C primarily in winter. The optimum temperature for photosynthesis in T. discolor is higher than the maximum temperature throughout most of its growing season, and therefore growth can be expected to increase with warming. Contrary to this hypothesis, experimental warming negatively affected reproductive fitness (number of flowering stalks, flowers, fruits) and growth (change in leaf area from 2010 to 2012) in T. discolor. Temperature in June–July was critical for flowering, and mean July temperature greater than 29 °C (i.e., 2.5 °C above ambient) eliminated reproduction. Warming of 1.2 °C delayed flowering by an average of 10 days and fruiting by an average of 5 days. Warming of 4.4 °C reduced relative growth rates by about 60 %, which may have been partially caused by the direct effects of temperature on photosynthesis and respiration. Warming indirectly increased vapor pressure deficit (VPD) by 0.2–0.5 kPa, and leaf-to-air VPD over 1.3 kPa restricted stomatal conductance of T. discolor to 10–40 % of maximum conductance. These results highlight the need to account for changes in VPD when estimating temperature responses of plant species under future warming scenarios. Increasing temperature in the future will likely be an important limiting factor to the distribution of T. discolor, especially along the southern edge of its range.     

Endogenous arabitol and mannitol improve shelf life of encapsulated <Emphasis Type="Italic">Metarhizium brunneum</Emphasis>

Successful commercialization of microbial biocontrol agents, such as Metarhizium spp., is often constrained by poor drying survival and shelf life. Here, we hypothesized that culture age would influence endogenous arabitol, erythritol, mannitol and trehalose contents in M. brunneum mycelium and that elevated levels of these compounds would improve drying survival and shelf life of encapsulated mycelium coupled with enhanced fungal virulence against T. molitor larvae. We found that culture age significantly influenced endogenous arabitol and mannitol contents in mycelium with highest concentrations of 0.6?±?0.2 and 2.1?±?0.2 µg/mg after 72 h, respectively. Drying survival of encapsulated mycelium was independent of culture age and polyol content with 41.1?±?4.4 to 55.0?±?6.2%. Best shelf life was determined for biomass harvested after 72 h at all investigated storage temperatures with maximum values of 59.5?±?3.3% at 5 °C followed by 54.5?±?1.6% at 18 °C and 19.4?±?1.3% at 25 °C after 6 months. Finally, high fungal virulence against T. molitor larvae of 83.3?±?7.6 to 98.0?±?1.8% was maintained during storage of encapsulated mycelium for 12 months with larval mortalities being independent of culture age and polyol content. In conclusion, our findings indicate beneficial effects of endogenous polyols in improving shelf life of encapsulated mycelium and this may spur the successful development of microbial biocontrol agents in the future.     

Environmental factors that define the spawning and nursery areas for Percophis brasiliensis (Teleostei: Percophididae) in a multispecific reproductive coastal zone, El Rincón (39°–41°S), Argentina

The spatial distribution of Percophis brasiliensis at different maturity stages and its relationship to environmental factors was evaluated in the El Rincon area (39°–41°S) between 1994 and 2008 during eight cruises carried out in spring. For this, a canonical correspondence analysis was used. Results indicate that bottom temperature and bottom salinity horizontal gradient (BSHG) were the most important variables affecting the spatial distribution of P. brasiliensis maturity stages. Juveniles were mainly located in shallow waters with low salinity, high temperatures and vertical stratification. Conversely, gravid and running individuals were found in high BSHG and low temperatures. This link suggests that adults spawn in a well-defined area of hydrographic conditions that would tend to retain pelagic eggs and larvae, thus minimizing dispersal, and ensuring their transport from the spawning to nursery areas. On the coastal shelf of El Rincon, the water mass circulation shows an anti-cyclonic gyre whose recirculation cell during spring and summer is more constrained to inshore areas than during winter. Maximum reproductive activity of P. brasiliensis coincides with the highest retention period; therefore, dispersal of early-life stages (eggs) depends on the circulation pattern and transport pathway which would contribute importantly to its recruitment variability.     

Supercritical CO2 interpolymer complex encapsulation improves heat stability of probiotic bifidobacteria

The probiotic industry faces the challenge of retention of probiotic culture viability as numbers of these cells within their products inevitably decrease over time. In order to retain probiotic viability levels above the therapeutic minimum over the duration of the product’s shelf life, various methods have been employed, among which encapsulation has received much interest. In line with exploitation of encapsulation for protection of probiotics against adverse conditions, we have previously encapsulated bifidobacteria in poly-(vinylpyrrolidone)-poly-(vinylacetate-co-crotonic acid) (PVP:PVAc-CA) interpolymer complex microparticles under supercritical conditions. The microparticles produced had suitable characteristics for food applications and also protected the bacteria in simulated gastrointestinal fluids. The current study reports on accelerated shelf life studies of PVP:PVAc-CA encapsulated Bifidobacterium lactis Bb12 and Bifidobacterium longum Bb46. Samples were stored as free powders in glass vials at 30 °C for 12 weeks and then analysed for viable counts and water activity levels weekly or fortnightly. Water activities of the samples were within the range of 0.25–0.43, with an average a _w  = 0.34, throughout the storage period. PVP:PVAc-CA interpolymer complex encapsulation retained viable levels above the recommended minimum for 10 and 12 weeks, for B. longum Bb46 and B. lactis Bb12, respectively, thereby extending their shelf lives under high storage temperature by between 4 and 7 weeks. These results reveal the possibility for manufacture of encapsulated probiotic powders with increased stability at ambient temperatures. This would potentially allow the supply of a stable probiotic formulation to impoverished communities without proper storage facilities recommended for most of the currently available commercial probiotic products.     

Reduced seed predation after invasion supports enemy release in a broad biogeographical survey

The Enemy Release (ER) hypothesis predicts an increase in the plant invasive capacity after being released from their associated herbivores or pathogens in their area of origin. Despite the large number of studies on biological invasions addressing this hypothesis, tests evaluating changes in herbivory on native and introduced populations and their effects on plant reproductive potential at a biogeographical level are relatively rare. Here, we tested the ER hypothesis on the South African species Senecio pterophorus (Asteraceae), which is native to the Eastern Cape, has expanded into the Western Cape, and was introduced into Australia (>70–100 years ago) and Europe (>30 years ago). Insect seed predation was evaluated to determine whether plants in the introduced areas were released from herbivores compared to plants from the native range. In South Africa, 25 % of the seedheads of sampled plants were damaged. Plants from the introduced populations suffered lower seed predation compared to those from the native populations, as expected under the ER hypothesis, and this release was more pronounced in the region with the most recent introduction (Europe 0.2 % vs. Australia 15 %). The insect communities feeding on S. pterophorus in Australia and Europe differed from those found in South Africa, suggesting that the plants were released from their associated fauna after invasion and later established new associations with local herbivore communities in the novel habitats. Our study is the first to provide strong evidence of enemy release in a biogeographical survey across the entire known distribution of a species.     

Phenotypic and molecular identification of Sporothrix isolates of clinical origin in Northeast China

Sporotrichosis is the most common deep mycosis in Northeast China which is an area of high epidemicity due to contact with reeds or cornstalks. In this study, we have characterized a total of 74 clinical isolates from fixed cutaneous, lymphocutaneous and disseminated clinical forms and from Heilongjiang, Jilin, and Liaoning provinces, respectively. All isolates (previously as Sporothrix schenckii) were identified as Sporothrix globosa according to their phenotypic characteristics and calmodulin gene sequences analysis. They were subdivided into two sub-clades (S. globosa I and S. globosa II). Most of our isolates (71/74) presented restricted growth at 37 °C, which differed from a previous report. Up to now, S. globosa is the only pathogenic species in Northeast China, no matter what kind of clinical form and which region it is isolated from. Most of our clinical isolates (68/74) were clustered with three Chinese environmental isolates reported in the literature. The new findings of S. globosa isolates on division and thermotolerance at 37 °C described in this study will help us gain a better understanding of S. globosa.     

Nitrogen budgets of urban lawns under three different management regimes in southern California

We constructed nitrogen (N) budgets for the lawns of three simulated residences built to test the environmental impacts of three different residential landscape designs in southern California. The three designs included: a “Typical” lawn planted with cool season tall fescue (Schedonorus phoenix), fertilized at the recommended rate for this species (192 kg^?1 ha^?1 year^?1) and irrigated with an automatic timer; a design intended to lower N and water requirements (“Low Input”) with the warm season seashore paspalum (Paspalum vaginatum) fertilized at 123 kg^?1 ha^?1 year^?1 and irrigated with a soil moisture-based system; and a design incorporating local best practices (“Low Impact” lawn) that included the native sedge species Carex, fertilized at 48 kg^?1 ha^?1 year^?1 and irrigated by a weather station-based system. Plant N uptake accounted for 33.2 ± 0.5 (tall fescue), 53.7 ± 0.7 (seashore paspalum), and 12.2 ± 1.3 % (Carex) of annual N inputs, while estimated N retention in soil was relatively large and similar in the three lawns (41–46 %). At lower N and water inputs than Typical, Low Input showed the highest annual clipping yield and N uptake, although it also had higher denitrification rates. Leaching inorganic N losses remained low even from the Typical lawn (2 %), while gaseous N losses were highly variable. The Low Input lawn was most efficient in retaining N with relatively low water and N costs, although its fertilization rates could be further reduced to lower gaseous N losses. Our results suggest that the choice of a warm-season, C₄ turf species with reduced rates of irrigation and fertilization is effective in this semi-arid region to maintain high productivity and N retention in plants and soils at low N and water inputs.