泛素样蛋白ISG15在抗病毒天然免疫中的作用

干扰素刺激基因15(ISG15)编码的蛋白是抗病毒天然免疫通路中的重要调节因子,病毒感染和干扰素刺激均可强烈诱导ISG15的表达。ISG15是最早发现的泛素样蛋白,可对细胞内多种蛋白进行修饰并调节蛋白功能,但不介导蛋白质的降解,在机体抗病毒天然免疫反应中发挥重要作用,其机制尚未完全明确。近几年对ISG15的研究有所突破,发现了ISG15在抗病毒天然免疫反应中的新功能。我们简要概述了泛素样蛋白ISG15的概况、修饰酶系统及ISG15在抗病毒天然免疫反应中功能的研究进展。     

Human Mincle Binds to Cholesterol Crystals and Triggers Innate Immune Responses

C-type lectin receptors (CLRs) are an emerging family of pattern recognition receptors that recognizes pathogens or damaged tissue to trigger innate immune responses. However, endogenous ligands for CLRs are not fully understood. In this study, we sought to identify an endogenous ligand(s) for human macrophage-inducible C-type lectin (hMincle). A particular fraction of lipid extracts from liver selectively activated reporter cells expressing hMincle. MS analysis determined the chemical structure of the active component as cholesterol. Purified cholesterol in plate-coated and crystalized forms activates reporter cells expressing hMincle but not murine Mincle (mMincle). Cholesterol crystals are known to activate immune cells and induce inflammatory responses through lysosomal damage. However, direct innate immune receptors for cholesterol crystals have not been identified. Murine macrophages transfected with hMincle responded to cholesterol crystals by producing pro-inflammatory cytokines. Human dendritic cells expressed a set of inflammatory genes in response to cholesterol crystals, and this was inhibited by anti-human Mincle. Importantly, other related CLRs did not bind cholesterol crystals, whereas other steroids were not recognized by hMincle. These results suggest that cholesterol crystals are an endogenous ligand for hMincle and that they activate innate immune responses.     

The Role of Copper and Zinc Toxicity in Innate Immune Defense against Bacterial Pathogens

Zinc (Zn) and copper (Cu) are essential for optimal innate immune function, and nutritional deficiency in either metal leads to increased susceptibility to bacterial infection. Recently, the decreased survival of bacterial pathogens with impaired Cu and/or Zn detoxification systems in phagocytes and animal models of infection has been reported. Consequently, a model has emerged in which the host utilizes Cu and/or Zn intoxication to reduce the intracellular survival of pathogens. This review describes and assesses the potential role for Cu and Zn intoxication in innate immune function and their direct bactericidal function.     

Using RNA-interference to Investigate the Innate Immune Response in Mouse Macrophages

Macrophages are key phagocytic innate immune cells. When macrophages encounter a pathogen, they produce antimicrobial proteins and compounds to kill the pathogen, produce various cytokines and chemokines to recruit and stimulate other immune cells, and present antigens to stimulate the adaptive immune response. Thus, being able to efficiently manipulate macrophages with techniques such as RNA-interference (RNAi) is critical to our ability to investigate this important innate immune cell. However, macrophages can be technically challenging to transfect and can exhibit inefficient RNAi-induced gene knockdown. In this protocol, we describe methods to efficiently transfect two mouse macrophage cell lines (RAW264.7 and J774A.1) with siRNA using the Amaxa Nucleofector 96-well Shuttle System and describe procedures to maximize the effect of siRNA on gene knockdown. Moreover, the described methods are adapted to work in 96-well format, allowing for medium and high-throughput studies. To demonstrate the utility of this approach, we describe experiments that utilize RNAi to inhibit genes that regulate lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced cytokine production.     

Adaptation to Host-Specific Bacterial Pathogens Drives Rapid Evolution of a Human Innate Immune Receptor

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Small molecule inhibitors reveal an indispensable scaffolding role of RIPK2 in NOD2 signaling

RIPK2 mediates inflammatory signaling by the bacteria‐sensing receptors NOD1 and NOD2. Kinase inhibitors targeting RIPK2 are a proposed strategy to ameliorate NOD‐mediated pathologies. Here, we reveal that RIPK2 kinase activity is dispensable for NOD2 inflammatory signaling and show that RIPK2 inhibitors function instead by antagonizing XIAP‐binding and XIAP‐mediated ubiquitination of RIPK2. We map the XIAP binding site on RIPK2 to the loop between β2 and β3 of the N‐lobe of the kinase, which is in close proximity to the ATP‐binding pocket. Through characterization of a new series of ATP pocket‐binding RIPK2 inhibitors, we identify the molecular features that determine their inhibition of both the RIPK2‐XIAP interaction, and of cellular and in vivoNOD2 signaling. Our study exemplifies how targeting of the ATP‐binding pocket in RIPK2 can be exploited to interfere with the RIPK2‐XIAP interaction for modulation of NOD signaling.     

Disruption of XIAP-RIP2 Association Blocks NOD2-Mediated Inflammatory Signaling

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肝脏固有免疫系统对肠源性感染的免疫应答与免疫耐受机制

肝特殊的解剖结构及生理特征使其成为暴露肠源性抗原的主要器官。由于肝具有独特的固有免疫系统,在正常情况下,肝分布多种致耐受的抗原提呈细胞,对持续性表达或递呈于肝的肠源性抗原物质,诱发针对该抗原的系统性免疫耐受,避免肝受到不必要的免疫损伤。当炎症发生及肝脏固有免疫系统活化时,则通过免疫效应细胞及免疫效应因子对肠源性病原体发挥强烈地免疫应答以控制感染。该过程形成机制的研究对肝功能的理解及肝性疾病的预防与治疗至关重要。本文就肝固有免疫系统对肠源性感染的免疫应答与免疫耐受形成机制作一综述。     

动脉粥样硬化中适应性免疫应答的研究进展

动脉粥样硬化(atherosclerosis,AS)是导致心血管疾病的主要病理生理基础,现在被认为是一种慢性炎症性疾病.实验和临床证据表明适应性免疫应答可加速或抑制AS.适应性免疫细胞包括T细胞和B细胞,其通过分泌不同的细胞因子或抗体发挥促炎或抗炎作用,某些T细胞和B细胞亚型在AS进程中的作用仍存在争议,Th17和Treg细胞可根据微环境改变表型,提示T细胞可能具有可塑性.此外,脂质代谢和适应性免疫系统之间也存在复杂的相互作用.最近卡那单抗抗炎血栓形成结果研究为治疗AS的抗炎症策略提供了关键支持,针对免疫系统的免疫调节或疫苗接种也是治疗AS有希望的途径.本文就近年来适应性免疫应答在AS中的研究进展作一综述,并展望其作为诊断和防治心血管疾病靶点的未来前景.     

果蝇蛋白质激酶Pitslre通过调控抗菌肽表达参与天然免疫反应

为鉴定新的参与黑腹果蝇(Drosophila melanogaster)天然免疫信号通路调控的分子及作用机制,应用果蝇的Gal4/UAS系统敲低54个蛋白质激酶编码基因,分别利用革兰氏阳性菌（Enterococcus faecalis, E.faecalis）或革兰氏阴性菌（Erwinia carototovovora carototovovora 15, Ecc15）感染基因敲低果蝇,筛选参与果蝇天然免疫反应的蛋白质激酶。结果显示,全身性敲低蛋白质激酶Pitslre的果蝇感染E.faecalis或Ecc15 后,生存率降低,半致死时间LT50分别降低为对照组的66.7%和28.6%。相应的,Pitslre功能缺失导致革兰氏阳性菌和阴性菌分别感染后,Toll及IMD通路下游抗菌肽Drosomycin和Diptercin表达水平明显下降。在脂肪体和血淋巴细胞中特异性敲低Pitslre基因,导致革兰氏阳性菌及阴性菌感染后的果蝇半致死时间LT50分别缩短75%和90%,细菌载量分别升高约10倍。在果蝇S2细胞中,敲低Pitslre基因,导致细胞的抗菌肽Drosomycin、Attacin和Diptercin表达水平分别降低约50%。此外,通过免疫共沉淀实验检测Pitslre与预测存在相互作用的蛋白质TSC1、Rcd5和pbl之间的相互作用。综上所述,蛋白质激酶Pitslre参与果蝇天然免疫反应,在正向调控果蝇天然免疫Toll和IMD通路中发挥重要作用。     

果蝇蛋白质激酶Pitslre通过调控抗菌肽表达参与天然免疫反应

为鉴定新的参与黑腹果蝇(Drosophila melanogaster)天然免疫信号通路调控的分子及作用机制,应用果蝇的Gal4/UAS系统敲低54个蛋白质激酶编码基因,分别利用革兰氏阳性菌（Enterococcus faecalis, E.faecalis）或革兰氏阴性菌（Erwinia carototovovora carototovovora 15, Ecc15）感染基因敲低果蝇,筛选参与果蝇天然免疫反应的蛋白质激酶。结果显示,全身性敲低蛋白质激酶Pitslre的果蝇感染E.faecalis或Ecc15 后,生存率降低,半致死时间LT50分别降低为对照组的66.7%和28.6%。相应的,Pitslre功能缺失导致革兰氏阳性菌和阴性菌分别感染后,Toll及IMD通路下游抗菌肽Drosomycin和Diptercin表达水平明显下降。在脂肪体和血淋巴细胞中特异性敲低Pitslre基因,导致革兰氏阳性菌及阴性菌感染后的果蝇半致死时间LT50分别缩短75%和90%,细菌载量分别升高约10倍。在果蝇S2细胞中,敲低Pitslre基因,导致细胞的抗菌肽Drosomycin、Attacin和Diptercin表达水平分别降低约50%。此外,通过免疫共沉淀实验检测Pitslre与预测存在相互作用的蛋白质TSC1、Rcd5和pbl之间的相互作用。综上所述,蛋白质激酶Pitslre参与果蝇天然免疫反应,在正向调控果蝇天然免疫Toll和IMD通路中发挥重要作用。     

抗病毒天然免疫通路中IRF-3调控新机制

干扰素调节因子-3(interferon regulatory factor-3,IRF-3)是IRF家族中重要 转录因子之一,在调控干扰素(interferon, IFN)基因表达和抗病毒天然免疫反应中具有重要作 用. 最新发现的MITA (mediator of IRF-3 activation, 又称STING/ERIS)蛋白是宿主抗病 毒天然免疫反应中的一种重要调节分子. 病毒侵染时,MITA与IRF-3相互作用,特异性激活 IRF-3,并募集TANK结合激酶1（TANK binding kinase 1, TBK1）与IFN通路中的线粒体抗 病毒信号蛋白MAVS(mitochondrial anti-viral signaling protein)形成复合物,且MITA可 被TBK1磷酸化,诱导Ⅰ型IFN及IFN刺激基因(interferon stimulate genes, ISG)的表达 ,诱发抗病毒天然免疫反应. 同时还发现,泛素连接酶RNF5（ring finger protein 5）可对MITA 发生泛素化修饰从而抑制其对IRF-3活化,实现对宿主抗病毒天然免疫反应负调节作用. 本 室研究发现,严重性急性呼吸系统综合症冠状病毒(severe acute respiratory syndrome co ronavirus, SARS-CoV）和人类新型冠状病毒（human coronavirus NL63, HCoV-NL63）的 木瓜样蛋白酶（papain-like protease, PLP）利用其特有的去泛素化酶（deubiquitinase, DUB）活性,通过宿主细胞泛素-蛋白酶体信号系统对IRF-3的泛素化等翻译后修饰进行调节 ,从而成为该种病毒逃逸机体抗病毒防御系统主要手段之一.     

Western Diet Triggers NLRP3-Dependent Innate Immune Reprogramming

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Mitochondrial ROS promotes susceptibility to infection via gasdermin D-mediated necroptosis

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The Utilization of Oropharyngeal Intratracheal PAMP Administration and Bronchoalveolar Lavage to Evaluate the Host Immune Response in Mice

The host immune response to pathogens is a complex biological process. The majority of in vivo studies classically employed to characterize host-pathogen interactions take advantage of intraperitoneal injections of select bacteria or pathogen associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) in mice. While these techniques have yielded tremendous data associated with infectious disease pathobiology, intraperitoneal injection models are not always appropriate for host-pathogen interaction studies in the lung. Utilizing an acute lung inflammation model in mice, it is possible to conduct a high resolution analysis of the host innate immune response utilizing lipopolysaccharide (LPS). Here, we describe the methods to administer LPS using nonsurgical oropharyngeal intratracheal administration, monitor clinical parameters associated with disease pathogenesis, and utilize bronchoalveolar lavage fluid to evaluate the host immune response. The techniques that are described are widely applicable for studying the host innate immune response to a diverse range of PAMPs and pathogens. Likewise, with minor modifications, these techniques can also be applied in studies evaluating allergic airway inflammation and in pharmacological applications.