Landscape level processes driving carabid crop assemblage in dynamic farmlands

Landscape heterogeneity has been shown to be a major factor in the maintenance of biodiversity and associated services in agricultural landscapes. Farmlands are mosaics of fields with various crop types and farming practices. Crop phenology creates asynchrony between fields sown and harvested in different periods (winter vs. spring crops). The present study was conducted to examine the influence of such spatio-temporal heterogeneity on biodiversity, with the hypothesis that it would lead to spatio-temporal redistribution (shifting) of species. Species richness and activity-density of carabid beetles in winter cereal (winter) and maize (spring) crops were compared across 20 landscapes distributed along a double gradient of relative area and spatial configuration of winter and spring crops. Maize fields were sampled in spring and late summer for comparison over time. The response of carabid species richness to landscape heterogeneity was weak in spring, but maize field richness benefited from adjacencies with woody habitat, in late summer. In spring, increased length of interfaces between winter and spring crops lowered carabid activity-density in winter cereal fields, suggesting that maize fields acted as sinks. Interfaces between woody habitats and crops increased activity-density in both crop types. We found no evidence of spatio-temporal complementation, but different species benefited from winter cereals and maize in spring and late summer, increasing overall diversity. These findings confirm the role of adjacencies between woody and cultivated habitats in the conservation of abundant carabid assemblage in winter cereals and maize. We conclude that between-field population movement occurs, and advocate for better consideration of farmland heterogeneity in future research.     

Plants, insects and birds in semi-natural pastures in relation to local habitat and landscape factors

The preservation of remaining semi-natural grasslands in Europe has a high conservation priority. Previously, the effects of artificial fertilisation and grazing intensity on grassland animal and plant taxa have been extensively investigated. In contrast, little is known of the effects of tree and shrub cover within semi-natural grasslands and composition of habitats in the surrounding landscape on grassland taxa. We evaluated the effect that each of these factors has on species richness and community structure of vascular plants, butterflies, bumble bees, ground beetles, dung beetles and birds surveyed simultaneously in 31 semi-natural pastures in a farmland landscape in south-central Sweden. Partial correlation analyses showed that increasing proportion of the pasture area covered by shrubs and trees had a positive effect on species richness on most taxa. Furthermore, species richness of nectar seeking butterflies and bumble bees were negatively associated with grazing intensity as reflected by grass height. At the landscape level, species richness of all taxa decreased (butterflies and birds significantly so) with increasing proportion of urban elements in a 1-km² landscape area centred on each pasture, while the number of plant and bird species were lower in landscapes with large proportion of arable fields. Our results differed markedly depending on whether the focus was on species richness or community structure. Canonical correspondence analyses (CCA) showed that the abundance of most taxa was ordered along a gradient describing tree cover within pastures and proportion of arable fields in the landscape. However, subsets of grassland birds and vascular plants, respectively, showed markedly different distribution patterns along axis one of the CCA. In contrast to current conservation policy of semi-natural pastures in Sweden, our results strongly advise against using a single-taxon approach (i.e., grassland vascular plants) to design management and conservation actions in semi-natural pastures. Careful consideration of conservation values linked to the tree and shrub layers in grasslands should always precede decisions to remove trees and shrubs on the grounds of promoting richness of vascular plants confined to semi-natural grasslands. Finally, the importance of landscape composition for mobile organisms such as birds entails that management activities should focus on the wider countryside and not exclusively on single pastures.     

A multivariate analysis of cropping effects on Irish ground beetle assemblages (Coleoptera: Carabidae) in mixed arable and grass farmland

The assemblage of carabid species trapped over a 3 yr period in eight separate but contiguous fields was analysed by Canonical Correspondence Analysis (CCA), Seven of the fields were subject to arable crop rotations involving a mixture of autumn and early spring‐sown cereals (wheat or barley), late spring‐sown crops (potatoes, sugar and fodder beet and maize) and short‐term uncultivated grass leys, The eighth field was an established ‘permanent’ grass pasture of at least 50 yrs standing, Pooled samples collected in the first half of the growing season (April‐June) showed clear evidence of soil cultivation effects on community structure, Systematic exclusion of samples and re‐analysis distinguished the fauna of firstly, old pasture samples, samples from ley pastures of increasing age and finally samples from fields with different times of soil cultivation, In the latter analysis, the main effects of soil cultivation were related to differences in ground cover over the winter and a direct effect of spring soil cultivation on autumn breeding populations, The ordination of pooled catches for the second half of the growing season (July‐September) could not be related to known year, field or crop cultivation variables, The underlying species ordination suggested that later in the summer the effect of crop cover on soil microclimate may mask cultivation effects by influencing the post‐emergence dispersal of autumn‐breeding populations and the reproductive success of spring‐breeders, The combination of earlier soil cultivation effects, and probably microclimatic influences later in the season, resulted in the strong distinction of whole season carabid catches from individual fields, It is concluded that the uniqueness of individual field histories may provide a mechanism to promote the co‐existence of ecologically similar species within the farmed landscape and enhance the abundance and bio‐diversity of species in the face of routine soil cultivation.     

Sampling epigeal arthropods: an evaluation of fenced pitfall traps using mark-release-recapture and comparisons to unfenced pitfall traps in arable crops

The efficiency of fenced pitfall traps for estimating the density of commonly occurring epigeal predatory beetles was examined using mark-release-recapture. Most beetles of those recovered were recaptured within one week of their release. For seven of the ten species tested recapture rates were over 70%, with higher rates for the larger species. The predatory arthropod species composition captured using fenced pitfall traps was compared to unfenced pitfall traps in winter wheat, spring barley and winter oilseed rape. Compositional analysis revealed that the dominance structure of seven carabid beetle (Coleoptera: Carabidae) taxa differed between the trap types and month of sampling in winter wheat and spring barley, but differences were small with the exception of a few taxa. Linear relationships between the two techniques were found for some carabid and rove beetles (Coleoptera: Staphylinidae). The dominance structure of seven linyphiid spider (Araneae: Linyphiidae) taxa differed between the two trap types in wheat but not barley, although large differences were restricted to two taxa. No linear relationships between the two techniques were found for any of the Linyphiidae examined. Rove beetles were more effectively sampled using the fenced compared to unfenced pitfall traps.     

Differentiation of spring carabid beetle assemblages between semi‐natural habitats and adjoining winter wheat

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Comparative nesting and feeding ecology of skylarks Alauda arvensis on arable farmland in southern England with special reference to set-aside

1. A study of skylark Alauda arvensis L. breeding ecology in relation to crop type was carried out from April to August 1992 on arable land in southern England. Set-aside land was included in this comparative study.
2. Territory density averaged 0·15 ha⁻¹. It was 2–3 times higher in fields of set-aside and grass, especially permanent pasture, than in winter and spring-sown cereals.
3. Territory size was nearly twice as large in fields of winter cereals (4·5 ha) than in other crop types (2·5 ha). Where set-aside was present on one farm, territory size in set-aside (1·7 ha) was a third lower than in cereals and grass.
4. Nesting began in set-aside and permanent pasture in April and peaked in late May. Nesting was not detected in spring barley until late May and in silage grass until early June. The density of successful nests in set-aside fields was more than double that in any of the arable crop types.
5. Average clutch size at hatching was 3·91 eggs in fields of set-aside, over 15% higher than in silage grass (3·40) and in spring barley (3·27).
6. Fledging success did not differ according to crop type, but productivity, expressed as the number of fledglings produced per hectare, was 0·50 in set-aside, 0·13 in silage grass, and 0·21 in spring barley. Nests with chicks were not found in fields of winter cereals. The causes of chick death were thought to be predation in set-aside fields, farming practices in silage grass fields, and suspected starvation in spring cereals.
7. The potentially high nesting success of skylarks in set-aside implies that sympathetic set-aside management could play an important part in reversing its decline across the European Union.     

Arable weeds in organically managed wheat fields foster carabid beetles by resource- and structure-mediated effects

Arable weeds in organically managed fields may foster arthropod generalist predators by the provision of shelter and favorable microclimate (structure-mediated effects) and the provision of additional animal and floral food resources (resource-mediated effects). In three organically managed winter wheat fields in Central Germany, we investigated the impact of weed removal and introduction of artificial weed-like structure on the activity density and species richness of carabid beetles with respect to trophic groups, microclimatic conditions, and densities of potential prey. Removal of weeds reduced both carabid activity density and species richness but did not affect trophic group composition. The decline in carabid activity density was dampened by the addition of artificial structure. Mean daily surface temperature and light intensity were significantly lower under weeds and artificial plants than under wheat plants alone. Weed removal reduced the abundance of leafhoppers and true bugs, but the response was inconsistent across fields. We conclude that the presence of arable weeds in organically managed wheat fields fosters carabid activity density and species richness via resource-mediated effects, such as a higher availability of weed-borne resources (e.g. seeds and pollen) and herbivorous prey. Structure-mediated effects (altering the microclimate) add to this positive effect. The presence of weeds in organically managed wheat fields enhances carabid activity density and diversity and needs to be integrated into future management strategies for natural enemy conservation.     

Small-scale species richness and its spatial variation in an alpine meadow on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau

We investigated how the high small-scale species richness of an alpine meadow on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, China, is maintained. This area is characterized by strong wind and severe cold during long winters. In winter, most livestock is grazed on dead leaves in small pastures near farmers’ residences, whereas in the short summer, livestock is grazed in mountainous areas far from farmers’ residences. The number of plant species and the aboveground biomass were surveyed for three adjacent pastures differing in grazing management: a late-winter grazing pasture grazed moderately from 1 February to 30 April, an early-winter grazing pasture grazed lightly from 20 September to late October, and a whole-year grazing pasture grazed intensively throughout the entire year. In each pasture, we harvested the aboveground biomass from 80 or 100 quadrats of 0.01 m² along a transect and classified the contents by species. We observed 15.5–19.7 species per 0.01 m², which is high richness per 0.01 m² on a worldwide scale. The species richness in the two winter grazing pastures was higher than that in the whole-year grazing pasture. The spatial variation in species richness and species composition in the two winter grazing pastures in which species richness was high was greater than that in the whole-year grazing pasture in which species richness was lower. Most of the leaves that are preserved on the winter grazing pastures during summer are blown away by strong winds during winter, and the remaining leaves are completely exhausted in winter by livestock grazing. A pasture with a high richess is accompanied by a high spatial variation in species richness and species composition. There is a high possibility that the characteristic of spatial variation is also caused by traditional grazing practices in this area.     

Ground beetle species (Carabidae,Coleoptera) activity and richness in relation to crop type,fertility management and crop protection in a farm management comparison trial

Ground beetle activity and species richness was monitored using pitfall traps in a plot trial system on a farm in northern England where the effects of organic and conventional fertility and crop protection management were separated within different crop types between 2005 and 2008. As well as analyses on species activity the beetles were split into small, medium‐sized and large groups, and into groups of herbivores and specific Collembola feeders. Crop type had significant effects on the activity of the 20 most abundant species and all groups, generally with most in beans and winter barley and least in vegetables and spring barley. Most significant reactions to crop protection and fertility management were in cereals and grass/clover. Activity of small species was highest in conventionally crop‐protected cereals but not in vegetables, with more medium‐sized and herbivorous species in organic plots, but there was little influence of crop protection management on large and Collembola feeding species. However, large species were significantly more active in organically fertilised cereals and grass/clover, but not in vegetables, and there were more Collembola feeders in conventional cereals but not in grass/clover. Small species were more abundant in conventionally fertilised grass/clover but there were more in organic cereals and vegetables. These inconsistent activity reactions to management were also observed with individual species but most preferred organically managed plots. There were few significant crop protection : fertility management interactions. Species richness was also significantly affected by crop type and where management had an influence, more species were found in organically managed plots. Constrained ordination emphasised that ground beetle activity was influenced more by crops than by management. Given the diverse nature of organic crop rotations, crop type should be considered a major influence in any environmental manipulation aimed at increasing ground beetle activity for provision of ecosystem services.     

Dung beetle (Coleoptera: Scarabaeinae) persistence in Amazonian forest fragments and adjacent pastures: biogeographic implications for alpha and beta diversity

The aim of this study is to analyze the effects of habitat loss and forest replacement by cattle pasture on the alpha and beta diversity, abundance, biomass and species composition of dung beetles with different dispersal ability. Dung beetles were captured in 19 forest fragments and neighbouring pastures. Forest fragment area ranged from 3.7 to 4825 ha and in this study were grouped into four categories: small, medium, large and control forest. A total of 35,048 dung beetles representing 101 species were collected. Forest fragments had the highest richness with 81 species, followed by pasture with 58 species. Replacement of forest by pasture reduced species richness; however, due to the proximity and connectivity of these areas with Cerrado patches, pastures also had high species richness, but species composition was independent of adjacent fragments. Small fragments had lower abundance and species richness than our other habitat categories, even pastures. Our results highlight that proximity and connectivity with Cerrado areas influenced the patterns of alpha and beta diversity of dung beetles in fragments and pastures. We highlight that the ability to cross the pasture matrix is a strong adaptive trait for species living in human-modified landscapes. Consequently, species with these abilities are less susceptible to the effects of forest fragmentation and local extinction. Our results reinforce the importance of considering the biogeographic location and distribution pattern of species in forest fragmentation studies.     

The impact of changing the season in which cereals are sown on the diversity of the weed flora in rotational fields in Denmark

1. Surveys have shown that there has been a dramatic decrease in the weed flora of fields under rotational cultivation during the last 30 years. This trend has been particularly noticeable in winter cereals, a crop of increasing importance in the landscape.
2. The weed flora of spring and winter cereals was compared in 19 unsprayed fields during a 5-year study to test the hypothesis that cereal type exerts no effect on the flora or on the absolute and relative abundance of single species.
3. Plant and species densities, and accumulated species richness, were lower in winter than in spring cereals.
4. Floristic similarity was greater among spring cereal fields and between spring and winter cereals within the same fields than among winter cereal fields.
5. Species that occurred with unequal density in spring and winter cereals occurred at higher densities in the spring cereals; these species germinated mainly in the spring. However, for a few species the relative plant abundance was highest in winter cereals; these species were able to germinate both in the spring and autumn.
6. Some species – on the relative scale – occurred indifferently of season of sowing; all but one of these species were able to germinate both in the spring and autumn.
7. Plant species and taxa that are important food resources for arthropod herbivores occurred at greater densities in spring than in winter cereals and, in addition, occurred with the highest relative abundance in spring cereals.
8. Change in land use from spring to winter cereals involves not only an immediate reduction of more than 25% in the density of plants and species, but also a change and increased uncertainty in the composition of the weed flora. These findings may have serious implications for the ecology of wildlife in the agricultural landscape.     

Staphylinidae and Carabidae overwintering in wheat and sown wildflower areas of different age

Species richness and abundance of staphylinid and carabid beetles overwintering in winter wheat fields and 1- to 3-year-old wildflower areas were investigated during 2000/2001 on 16 study sites in Switzerland. Abundance and species richness of overwintering staphylinids significantly increased with successional age of the wildflower areas and were always higher in older wildflower areas than in winter wheat. A similar but less distinct pattern was observed for the abundance and species richness of carabid beetles. The influence of habitat parameters (vegetation cover, fine sand content, organic matter, pH, soil pore volume, surrounding landscape structure, habitat area) on the staphylinid and carabid assemblages based on the number of individuals per species and site was analysed using canonical correspondence analysis. Vegetation cover was the most significant parameter significantly characterizing both staphylinid and carabid assemblages. The amount of vegetation cover explained 15.7% of the variance, fine sand content accounted for 13.3% and surrounding landscape structure for 10.9% of the variance in the staphylinid assemblage. In the carabid assemblage, vegetation cover was the only significant factor, explaining 24.7% of the variance. This study showed for the first time that the significance of wildflower areas as a reservoir for hibernation for generalist predatory beetles increases with progressing successional age.     

Species richness in agroecosystems: the effect of landscape, habitat and farm management

It has been suggested that biodiversity in agroecosystems depends on both landscape heterogeneity and farm management, but at the same time, studies of biodiversity in relation to both landscape variables and farm management are rare. We investigated the species richness of plants, butterflies, carabids, rove beetles and the diversity of spiders in cereal fields, leys (grass and clover crop) and semi-natural pastures at 16 farms in Central East Sweden. The farms were divided into eight pairs of one conventional and one organic farm to enable us to separate the effects of landscape and farm management on biodiversity. The pairing was based on land use, location, and landscape features. Species richness of different taxonomic groups was generally not correlated. There were no differences in species richness between the farming systems, except for carabids that had higher numbers of species on conventional farms. The species richness generally increased with landscape heterogeneity on a farm scale. Habitat type had a major effect on the species richness for most groups, with most species found in pastures and leys. The correlations between species richness and landscape variables on a farm scale, and not on a scale of multiple farms, identify farmers as the important decision-maker in conservation issues for these taxonomic groups. We discuss the role of species richness of pests' natural enemies for biological control and conservation strategies of the more common species in the agricultural landscape.     

Arthropod functional traits shaped by landscape-scale field size,local agri-environment schemes and edge effects

Agri-environment scheme (AES) approaches can be classified according to whether they prescribe management in non-productive areas, such as field boundaries and wildflower strips, or in productive areas, such as arable crops. Here we tested the ecological effectiveness of two popular AESs in Germany: wildflower strips next to winter wheat fields as off-field management and organic farming on winter wheat fields as on-field management. We selected ten landscapes along a field size gradient with three focal wheat fields, one conventional field with flower strip, one organic field and one conventional field without flower strip as a control. We sampled arthropods with pitfall traps at field edges and field interiors. We selected three ecological traits for spiders and carabids (body size, feeding trait, dispersal ability). We calculated community weighted mean values (CWM), and we used linear mixed effects models to test the effect of management type and transect position on CWM values. We found pronounced edge effects on most traits, and weaker effects of field size and AES in shaping functional traits. Smaller spiders, spiders with higher ballooning propensity and more web-builders were in the field interior than at the field edge, whereas carnivore carabids preferred field interiors. We also found a strong effect of landscape configuration, i.e. mean field size, as larger field size was positively related to more web-building spiders and more carnivore beetles. Flower strips enhanced populations of web-building spiders. Our results suggest that small-scale agriculture leading to high landscape-scale edge density has a major effect in shaping functional traits and potential ecosystems services in agricultural landscapes. Spider and carabid communities exhibit very different responses to edge vs. interior sites, and, based on the landscape-scale field size gradient emphasize the importance of landscape configuration in shaping the heterogeneity of the arthropods’ traits and presumably ecosystem services in agricultural landscapes.     

The impact of maize-bean intercropping on insect biodiversity

Intensive agriculture is one of the main reasons for recent insect declines. This loss of biodiversity has created the need to develop methods of intensive cultivation that combine high yields with biodiversity conservation. One promising method in maize cultivation is intercropping with beans. The objective of this study was to determine whether maize-bean intercropping could increase insect biodiversity. We examined the activity density, species richness and Shannon diversity of bees and carabid beetles in pure and intercropped maize under both organic and conventional management. We collected carabid beetles using pitfall traps and bees by doing transect walks. The study was carried out in an agricultural landscape, on a set of 17 study sites. We found that intercropping leads to significant increases in bumblebee and honeybee activity as well as in bee species richness. Differences between pure and intercropped maize were dependent on the year of data acquisition and the management style. Solitary wild bee species activity was not significantly affected. Carabid activity density and carabid species richness also did not differ significantly between the cropping systems. We conclude that maize-bean intercropping can contribute to insect biodiversity conservation but its contribution is limited to bumblebees. Despite its relatively low contribution per hectare, maize-bean intercropping could have a surprisingly positive impact, as maize now covers large areas of German farmland. Potential exists to increase the biodiversity value of maize intercropping even further by using varied plant mixes. Our results strongly encourage further research in this direction.     

Effects of three flower field types on bumblebees and their pollen diets

Agri-environment schemes, like flower fields, have been implemented in the EU to counteract the dramatic decline of farmland biodiversity. Farmers in Lower Saxony, Germany, may receive payments for three flower field types: annual, perennial (five years old), and mixed flower fields composed of yearly alternating annual and biannual parts. We assessed the effectiveness of these flower field types in providing bumblebee foraging habitat compared to control cereal fields. We sampled bumblebees with transect walks and assessed the richness of exploited pollen plants using DNA meta-barcoding and direct observations.All flower field types enhanced bumblebee abundance and species richness compared to control fields but attracted mostly three generalist species. Although we expected highest benefits from the more heterogeneous mixed flower fields, abundance was highest in annual, only intermediate in mixed, and lowest in perennial flower fields. Bumblebee species richness did not differ between flower field types.Overall, the proportion of sown plants in pollen loads was surprisingly low (< 50%). Bombus pascuorum, but not B. terrestris agg., exploited 10% of the sown plant species in perennial, 36% in annual and 45% in mixed flower fields, respectively. Compared to direct observations, pollen samples revealed 4.5 times more visited plant species and thus assessed floral resource use more reliably. Plant species richness in pollen loads decreased with local flowering plant species richness and increased with proportion of annual crops in the landscape, potentially due to the exploitation of more diverse and scattered resources, including flowering crops, in homogenized landscapes to fulfil dietary requirements.Our results indicate that under the current management, both annual and mixed flower fields provide the most attractive food resources, while perennial flower fields offered the poorest foraging habitats. Conclusively, flower fields seem important but resources from the surrounding landscape are still needed to sustain bumblebees in agricultural landscapes.     

Assessing human impact on fen biodiversity: effects of different management regimes on butterfly, grasshopper, and carabid beetle assemblages

Fens and concomitantly the associated species assemblages have undergone dramatic declines in recent decades. Given that many remaining or restored fens are currently lying fallow, an important question is which management regime, if any, is most effective in preserving fen biodiversity. Against this background we here investigate the effects of five management regimes (intensive grassland, moist meadows, summer harvested sites, winter harvested sites, fallows) on three insect taxa (butterflies, grasshoppers, carabid beetles) in riverine fens in north-eastern Germany. Butterflies and grasshoppers showed highest species numbers, diversity and numbers of threatened species on moist meadows and were detrimentally affected by high vegetation. In contrast, ground dwelling carabid beetles were less strongly affected by different management regimes, but responded very sensitive to drainage. Winter harvested sites and fallows seemed to be particularly beneficial to carabid beetles. Overall, drained, intensive grassland was not suitable for preserving fen-specific communities, while extensively managed moist meadows harboured overall the highest numbers of threatened species. We conclude that in terms of management maintaining high water tables is most important. Furthermore, some management seems necessary to maintain stands with lower vegetation turf for associated species. However, care is needed to also maintain fallows and to consider the specific demands of some highly endangered, management-sensitive species.     

Influence of within‐field position and adjoining habitat on carabid beetle assemblages in winter wheat

• 1 The influence of within‐field position and adjoining habitat on carabid beetles was studied in 20 winter wheat fields in ten different Swiss agricultural landscapes. In each landscape, two winter wheat fields (one with adjoining sown wildflower area and one with adjoining grassy margin) were investigated.
• 2 Carabid beetles were caught in pitfall traps 3 and 30 m from the edge in each of the 20 wheat fields. Significantly more individuals were found in the centres (30‐m position) than at the edges (3‐m position). Conversely, species richness was significantly higher at the field edges than in the centres.
• 3 Of the ten most abundant species, Poecilus cupreus, Agonum muelleri and Pterostichus melanarius were significantly more abundant in the field centres than at the edges. Harpalus rufipes was significantly more abundant in the fields adjoining sown wildflower areas than in the fields adjoining grassy margins.
• 4 In conclusion, the response of carabid beetles to within‐field position and adjoining habitats was species specific. This needs to be taken into account in habitat management for biodiversity conservation and pest control.

     

Landscape diversity of pasture dung beetle communities in the central region of mainland Japan and implications for conservation management

We studied the diversity of dung beetle communities in Japanese pastures to identify the factors that maintain or enhance the diversity of dung beetles at a landscape scale. We surveyed dung beetles from 17 pastures located in the northeastern part of Tochigi Prefecture, which is in the center of mainland Japan. From 1999 to 2001, surveys were conducted during the 6-month grazing period (May to October) by using dung baited basket traps. We also collected information about the environmental conditions and pasture management practices. Twenty-five dung beetle species belonging to Geotrupinae, Scarabaeinae, and Aphodiinae (including 13 tunneler and 12 dweller species) were recorded. The abundance of dweller species decreased with increasing elevation, possibly because of the effect of rainfall, whereas the species richness of tunneler species was affected by cattle disturbance and soil condition. Beetle species richness significantly increased with the number of years that the pastures had been grazed. Ivermectin administration did not appear to have any adverse effect on dung beetle abundance, species richness, or species diversity. The dung beetle datasets of the current study (including specific tunneler and dweller beetle groups) supported the widely documented positive relationship between local abundance and species distribution ranges. The within pasture, within area, and between area hierarchical additive partitioning of regional total diversity indicated that landscape-scale management should be implemented to conserve the regional diversity of the dung beetle communities inhabiting Japanese pastures.     

Regional hotspots of butterfly diversity in a protected area: Are they indicators of unique assemblages and areas with more species of conservation concern?

The implementation of biodiversity studies to set conservation priorities assumes that the different criteria used in prioritisation are correlated. Based on butterfly data, we examined whether high total diversity (species density and richness), unique species assemblages, and high numbers of different categories of Species of European Conservation Concern (SPEC) were co-located in the same habitats in the Picos de Europa National Park, Spain. Species density (number of species per sample) declined with elevation and was significantly higher in Genista shrublands on southern slopes (Southern Genista shrubland). We found unique species assemblages for Southern Genista shrublands, heathlands, mown meadows and subalpine meadows, whereas Genista shrubland on northern slopes (Northern Genista shrubland) and pastures were occupied by more habitat generalist species. We also found an effect of elevation on species composition. Species with global distributions concentrated in Europe (SPECs 4b) tended to be associated with Southern Genista shrubland, whereas species with global distributions restricted to Europe (SPECs 4a) were associated with higher elevations. Thus, we suggest a higher conservation value for butterfly assemblages located both on Southern Genista shrublands and at high elevations as they contain unique assemblages with a higher number of SPECs. By comparing our data with a previous study on carabid beetles, we found a low coincidence between butterflies and beetles for habitats with high species diversity and unique assemblages. Our study suggests that preserving areas in the landscape supporting higher butterfly diversity only partially preserves those species of greater conservation concern, and that butterflies cannot be used as a reliable indicator of other priority taxa for conservation, such as carabid beetles.