Functional replacement of genes for individual polyketide synthase components in Streptomyces coelicolor A3(2) by heterologous genes from a different polyketide pathway.

Streptomyces coelicolor A3(2) and Streptomyces violaceoruber Tü22 produce the antibiotics actinorhodin and granaticin, respectively. Both the aglycone of granaticin and the half-molecule of actinorhodin are derived from one acetyl coenzyme A starter unit and seven malonyl coenzyme A extender units via the polyketide pathway to produce benzoisochromane quinone moieties with identical structures (except for the stereochemistry at two chiral centers). In S. coelicolor and S. violaceoruber, the type II polyketide synthase (PKS) is encoded by clusters of five and six genes, respectively. We complemented a series of S. coelicolor mutants (act) defective in different components of the PKS (actI for carbon chain assembly, actIII for ketoreduction, and actVII for cyclization-dehydration) by the corresponding genes (gra) from S. violaceoruber introduced in trans on low-copy-number plasmids. This procedure showed that four of the act PKS components could be replaced by a heterologous gra protein to give a functional PKS. The analysis also served to identify which of three candidate open reading frames (ORFs) in the actI region had been altered in each of a set of 13 actI mutants. It also proved that actI-ORF2 (whose putative protein product shows overall similarity to the beta-ketoacyl synthase encoded by actI-ORF1 but whose function is unclear) is essential for PKS function. Mutations in each of the four complemented act genes (actI-ORF1, actI-ORF2, actIII, and actVII) were cloned and sequenced, revealing a nonsense or frameshift mutation in each mutant.     

Nucleotide sequence and deduced functions of a set of cotranscribed genes of Streptomyces coelicolor A3(2) including the polyketide synthase for the antibiotic actinorhodin.

A 5.3-kb region of the Streptomyces coelicolor actinorhodin gene cluster, including the genes for polyketide biosynthesis, was sequenced. Six identified open reading frames (ORF1-6) were related to genetically characterized mutations of classes actI, VII, IV, and VB by complementation analysis. ORF1-6 run divergently from the adjacent actIII gene, which encodes the polyketide synthase (PKS) ketoreductase, and appear to form an operon. The deduced gene products of ORF1-3 are similar to fatty acid synthases (FAS) of different organisms and PKS genes from other polyketide producers. The predicted ORF5 gene product is similar to type II beta-lactamases of Bacillus cereus and Bacteroides fragilis. The ORF6 product does not resemble other known proteins. Combining the genetical, biochemical, and similarity data, the potential activities of the products of the six genes can be postulated as: 1) condensing enzyme/acyl transferase (ORF1 + ORF2); 2) acyl carrier protein (ORF3); 3) putative cyclase/dehydrase (ORF4); 4) dehydrase (ORF5); and 5) "dimerase" (ORF6). The data show that the actinorhodin PKS consists of discrete monofunctional components, like that of the Escherichia coli (Type II) FAS, rather than the multifunctional polypeptides for the macrolide PKSs and vertebrate FASs (Type I).     

Isolation and characterization of the naphthocyclinone gene cluster from Streptomyces arenae DSM 40737 and heterologous expression of the polyketide synthase genes

Streptomyces arenae produces the aromatic polyketide naphthocyclinone, which exhibits activity against Gram-positive bacteria. A cosmid clone containing the putative naphthocyclinone gene cluster was isolated from a genomic library of S. arenae by hybridization with a conserved region from the actinorhodin PKS of S. coelicolor. Sequence analysis of a 5.5-kb DNA fragment, which hybridizes with the actI probe, revealed three open reading frames coding for the minimal polyketide synthase. A strong sequence similarity was found to several previously described ketosynthases, chain length factors and acyl carrier proteins from other polyketide gene clusters. An additional open reading frame downstream of the PKS genes of S. arenae showed 53% identity to act VII probably encoding an aromatase. Another open reading frame was identified in a region of 1.436 bp upstream of the PKS genes, which, however, had no similarity to known genes in the database. Approximately 8 kb upstream of the PKS genes, a DNA fragment was identified that hybridizes to an actVII--actIV specific probe coding for a cyclase and a putative regulatory protein, respectively. Disruption of the proposed naphthocyclinone gene cluster by insertion of a thiostrepton resistance gene completely abolished production of naphthocyclinones in the mutant strain, showing that indeed the naphthocyclinone gene cluster had been isolated. Heterologous expression of the minimal PKS genes in S. coelicolor CH999 in the presence of the act ketoreductase led to the production of mutactin and dehydromutactin, indicating that the S. arenae polyketide synthase forms a C-16 backbone that is subsequently dimerized to build naphthocyclinone. The functions of the proposed cyclase and aromatase were examined by coexpression with genes from different polyketide core producers.     

Cloning, sequencing, and analysis of the griseusin polyketide synthase gene cluster from Streptomyces griseus.

A fragment of DNA was cloned from the Streptomyces griseus K-63 genome by using genes (act) for the actinorhodin polyketide synthase (PKS) of Streptomyces coelicolor as a probe. Sequencing of a 5.4-kb segment of the cloned DNA revealed a set of five gris open reading frames (ORFs), corresponding to the act PKS genes, in the following order: ORF1 for a ketosynthase, ORF2 for a chain length-determining factor, ORF3 for an acyl carrier protein, ORF5 for a ketoreductase, and ORF4 for a cyclase-dehydrase. Replacement of the gris genes with a marker gene in the S. griseus genome by using a single-stranded suicide vector propagated in Escherichia coli resulted in loss of the ability to produce griseusins A and B, showing that the five gris genes do indeed encode the type II griseusin PKS. These genes, encoding a PKS that is programmed differently from those for other aromatic PKSs so far available, will provide further valuable material for analysis of the programming mechanism by the construction and analysis of strains carrying hybrid PKS.     

Analysis of clustered genes encoding both early and late steps in daunomycin biosynthesis by Streptomyces sp. strain C5.

We recently described the isolation and sequence analysis of the daunomycin polyketide synthase biosynthesis genes of Streptomyces sp. strain C5 (J. Ye, M. L. Dickens, R. Plater, Y. Li, J. Lawrence, and W. R. Strohl, J. Bacteriol. 176:6270-6280, 1994). Contiguous to the daunomycin polyketide synthase biosynthesis gene region in Streptomyces sp. strain C5 are four additional genes involved in daunomycin biosynthesis, two of the products of which show similarity to different types of methyltransferases. The dauC gene, encoding aklanonic acid methyltransferase (AAMT), complements dauC-blocked mutants of Streptomyces sp. strain C5, restores in vitro AAMT activities to the mutant strains, and confers in vitro AAMT activity on Streptomyces lividans. Partial purification through gel filtration, followed by photoaffinity labeling of enriched AAMT with S-adenosyl-L-[3H-methyl]methionine, indicates that AAMT is a homodimer with an M(r) of ca. 48,000 (subunit M(r) of ca. 24,000), which corresponds with the size of the deduced gene product. The dauD gene, encoding aklanonic acid methyl ester cyclase, is divergently arranged with respect to dauC. Immediately downstream and apparently translationally coupled with dauD is the dauK gene, encoding carminomycin 4-O-methyltransferase. The dauK gene confers in vitro carminomycin 4-O-methyltransferase activity on S. lividans and is nearly identical to a similar gene isolated from Streptomyces peucetius and characterized. Directly downstream of dauK lies a gene encoding a deduced protein that is similar to the methyl esterases.     

Biosynthesis of anthraquinones by interspecies cloning of actinorhodin biosynthesis genes in streptomycetes: clarification of actinorhodin gene functions.

Streptomyces galilaeus ATCC 31133 and ATCC 31671, producers of the anthracyclines aclacinomycin A and 2-hydroxyaklavinone, respectively, formed an anthraquinone, aloesaponarin II, when they were transformed with DNA from Streptomyces coelicolor containing four genetic loci, actI, actIII, actIV, and actVII, encoding early reactions in the actinorhodin biosynthesis pathway. Subcloning experiments indicated that a 2.8-kilobase-pair XhoI fragment containing only the actI and actVII loci was necessary for aloesaponarin II biosynthesis by S. galilaeus ATCC 31133. Aloesaponarin II was synthesized via the condensation of 8 acetyl coenzyme A equivalents, followed by a decarboxylation reaction as demonstrated by [1,2-13C2]acetate feeding experiments. S. coelicolor B22 and B159, actVI blocked mutants, also formed aloesaponarin II as an apparent shunt product. Mutants of S. coelicolor blocked in several other steps in actinorhodin biosynthesis did not synthesize aloesaponarin II or other detectable anthraquinones. When S. galilaeus ATCC 31671 was transformed with the DNA carrying the actI, actIII, and actVII loci, the recombinant strain produced both aloesaponarin II and aklavinone, suggesting that the actinorhodin biosynthesis DNA encoded a function able to deoxygenate 2-hydroxyaklavinone to aklavinone. When S. galilaeus ATCC 31671 was transformed with a plasmid carrying only the intact actIII gene (pANT45), aklavinone was formed exclusively. These experiments indicate a function for the actIII gene, which is the reduction of the keto group at C-9 from the carboxy terminus of the assembled polyketide to the corresponding secondary alcohol. In the presence of the actIII gene, anthraquinones or anthracyclines formed as a result of dehydration and aromatization lack an oxygen function on the carbon on which the keto reductase operated. When S. galilaeus ATCC 31671 was transformed with the DNA carrying the actI, actVII, and actIV loci, the recombinant strain produced two novel anthraquinones, desoxyerythrolaccin, the 3-hydroxy analog of aloesaponarin II, and 1-O-methyldesoxyerythrolaccin. The results obtained in these experiments together with earlier data suggest a pathway for the biosynthesis of actinorhodin and related compounds by S. coelicolor.     

Cloning and characterization of Streptomyces galilaeus aclacinomycins polyketide synthase (PKS) cluster

We have cloned and sequenced polyketide synthase (PKS) genes from the aclacinomycin producer Streptomyces galilaeus ATCC 31,615. The sequenced 13.5-kb region contained 13 complete genes. Their organization as well as their protein sequences showed high similarity to those of other type II PKS genes. The continuous region included the genes for the minimal PKS, consisting of ketosynthase I (aknB), ketosynthase II (aknC), and acyl carrier protein (aknD). These were followed by the daunomycin dpsC and dpsD homologues (aknE2 and F, respectively), which are rare in type II PKS clusters. They are associated with the unusual starter unit, propionate, used in the biosynthesis of aklavinone, a common precursor of aclacinomycin and daunomycin. Accordingly, when aclacinomycins minimal PKS genes were substituted for those of nogalamycin in the plasmid carrying genes for auramycinone biosynthesis, aklavinone was produced in the heterologous hosts. In addition to the minimal PKS, the cloned region included the PKS genes for polyketide ketoreductase (aknA), aromatase (aknE1) and oxygenase (aknX), as well as genes putatively encoding an aklanonic acid methyl transferase (aknG) and an aklanonic acid methyl ester cyclase (aknH) for post-polyketide steps were found. Moreover, the region carried genes for an activator (aknI), a glycosyl transferase (aknK) and an epimerase (aknL) taking part in deoxysugar biosynthesis.     

Biosynthes of polyketide antibiotics by various actinomycin producing Streptomyces species]

A collection of actinomycin-producing Streptomyces strains, their variants with different levels of antibiotic biosynthesis, and recombinant strains were screened in order to select new strains that produce polyketide antibiotics. Screening with the use of the cloned act gene encoding a component of actinorhodin polyketide synthase (PKS) multienzyme complex from Streptomyces coelicolor revealed that many strains tested can synthesize polyketide antibiotics along with actinomycins. A relationship between biosynthetic pathways of actinomycins and polyketides is discussed.     

Purification of a malonyltransferase from Streptomyces coelicolor A3(2) and analysis of its genetic determinant.

Streptomyces coelicolor A3(2) synthesizes each half molecule of the dimeric polyketide antibiotic actinorhodin (Act) from one acetyl and seven malonyl building units, catalyzed by the Act polyketide synthase (PKS). The synthesis is analogous to fatty acid biosynthesis, and there is evident structural similarity between PKSs of Streptomyces spp. and fatty acid synthases (FASs). Each system should depend on a malonyl coenzyme A:acyl carrier protein malonyltransferase, which charges the FAS or PKS with the malonyl units for carbon chain extension. We have purified the Act acyl carrier protein-dependent malonyltransferase from stationary-phase, Act-producing cultures and have determined the N-terminal amino acid sequence and cloned the structural gene. The deduced amino acid sequence resembles those of known malonyltransferases of FASs and PKSs. The gene lies some 2.8 Mb from the rest of the act cluster, adjacent to an open reading frame whose gene product resembles ketoacylsynthase III of Escherichia coli FAS. The malonyltransferase was expressed equally as well during vegetative growth (when other components of the act PKS were not expressed) as in the stationary phase, suggesting that the malonyltransferase may be shared between the FAS and PKS of S. coelicolor. Disruption of the operon containing the malonyltransferase gene proved to be impossible, supporting the idea that the malonyltransferase plays an essential role in fatty acid biosynthesis.     

Minimal Streptomyces sp. strain C5 daunorubicin polyketide biosynthesis genes required for aklanonic acid biosynthesis.

The structure of the Streptomyces sp. strain C5 daunorubicin type II polyketide synthase (PKS) gene region is different from that of other known type II PKS gene clusters. Directly downstream of the genes encoding ketoacylsynthase alpha and beta (KS alpha, KS beta) are two genes (dpsC, dpsD) encoding proteins of unproven function, both absent from other type II PKS gene clusters. Also in contrast to other type II PKS clusters, the gene encoding the acyl carrier protein (ACP), dpsG, is located about 6.8 kbp upstream of the genes encoding the daunorubicin KS alpha and KS beta. In this work, we demonstrate that the minimal genes required to produce aklanonic acid in heterologous hosts are dpsG (ACP), dauI (regulatory activator), dpsA (KS alpha), dpsB (KS beta), dpsF (aromatase), dpsE (polyketide reductase), and dauG (putative deoxyaklanonic acid oxygenase). The two unusual open reading frames, dpsC (KASIII homolog lacking a known active site) and dpsD (acyltransferase homolog), are not required to synthesize aklanonic acid. Additionally, replacement of dpsD or dpsCD in Streptomyces sp. strain C5 with a neomycin resistance gene (aphI) results in mutant strains that still produced anthracyclines.     

Self-malonylation is an intrinsic property of a chemically synthesized type II polyketide synthase acyl carrier protein

During polyketide biosynthesis, malonyl groups are transferred to the acyl carrier protein (ACP) component of the polyketide synthase (PKS), and it has been shown that a number of type II polyketide ACPs undergo rapid self-acylation from malonyl-CoA in the absence of a malonyl-CoA:holo-acyl carrier protein transacylase (MCAT). More recently, however, the observation of self-malonylation has been ascribed to contamination with Escherichia coli MCAT (FabD) rather than an intrinsic property of the ACP. The wild-type apo-ACP from the actinorhodin (act) PKS of Streptomyces coelicolor (synthetic apo-ACP) has therefore been synthesized using solid-state peptide methods and refolded using the GroEL/ES chaperone system from E. coli. Correct folding of the act ACP has been confirmed by circular dichroism (CD) and 1H NMR. Synthetic apo-ACP was phosphopantetheinylated to 100% by S. coelicolor holo-acyl carrier protein synthase (ACPS), and the resultant holo-ACP underwent self-malonylation in the presence of malonyl-CoA. No malonylation of negative controls was observed, confirming that the use of ACPS and GroEL/ES did not introduce contamination with E. coli MCAT. This result proves unequivocally that self-malonylation is an inherent activity of this PKS ACP in vitro.     

The putative elaiophylin biosynthetic gene cluster in Streptomyces sp. DSM4137 is adjacent to genes encoding adenosylcobalamin-dependent methylmalonyl CoA mutase and to genes for synthesis of cobalamin

A type I PKS gene probe obtained from RAPB of the rapamycin producer Streptomyces hygroscopicus, strongly hybridised to 92 out of 1120 cosmids from a genomic library of the elaiophylin-producing strain Streptomyces sp. DSM4137. Partial cosmid sequencing suggested the presence of 10 separate sequences encoding type I PKS genes. One entire DNA sequence was obtained and found exactly to match the gene organisation expected for the biosynthesis of the unusual macrodiolide polyketide elaiophylin. The putative elaiophylin gene cluster contains five large open-reading frames encoding typical modular polyketide synthases, which together catalyse the synthesis of the octaketide monomer of elaiophylin. Other genes were identified that would be required for provision of the ethylmalonate extender unit, for the synthesis and attachment of 2-deoxy-L-fucose and in regulation, or in export of the product. Immediately adjacent to the putative elaiophylin biosynthetic gene cluster is a 30-kbp region containing the gene for adenosylcobalamin-dependent methylmalonyl CoA mutase and also genes involved in the biosynthesis of the cobalamin cofactor. Analysis of the latter gene set confirms the view that cbiD of the anaerobic pathway and cobF in the aerobic pathway catalyse the same methylation of precorrin-5. The proximity of these genes to the putative elaiophylin gene cluster can best be rationalised if in this organism succinyl-CoA is a significant source of the methylmalonate units for complex polyketide biosynthesis.     

A Sorangium cellulosum (myxobacterium) gene cluster for the biosynthesis of the macrolide antibiotic soraphen A: cloning, characterization, and homology to polyketide synthase genes from actinomycetes.

A 40-kb region of DNA from Sorangium cellulosum So ce26, which contains polyketide synthase (PKS) genes for synthesis of the antifungal macrolide antibiotic soraphen A, was cloned. These genes were detected by homology to Streptomyces violaceoruber genes encoding components of granaticin PKS, thus extending this powerful technique for the identification of bacterial PKS genes, which has so far been applied only to actinomycetes, to the gram-negative myxobacteria. Functional analysis by gene disruption has indicated that about 32 kb of contiguous DNA of the cloned region contains genes involved in soraphen A biosynthesis. The nucleotide sequence of a 6.4-kb DNA fragment, derived from the region with homology to granaticin PKS genes, was determined. Analysis of this sequence has revealed the presence of a single large open reading frame beginning and ending outside the 6.4-kb fragment. The deduced amino acid sequence indicates the presence of a domain with a high level of similarity to beta-ketoacyl synthases that are involved in polyketide synthesis. Other domains with high levels of similarity to regions of known polyketide biosynthetic functions were identified, including those for acyl transferase, acyl carrier protein, ketoreductase, and dehydratase. We present data which indicate that soraphen A biosynthesis is catalyzed by large, multifunctional enzymes analogous to other bacterial PKSs of type I.     

The biosynthetic gene cluster for the 26-membered ring polyene macrolide pimaricin. A new polyketide synthase organization encoded by two subclusters separated by functionalization genes

The biosynthetic gene cluster for the 26-membered ring of the polyene macrolide pimaricin extends for about 110 kilobase pairs of contiguous DNA in the genome of Streptomyces natalensis. Two sets of polyketide synthase (PKS) genes are separated by a group of small polyketide-functionalizing genes. Two of the polyketide synthase genes, pimS0 and pimS1, have been fully sequenced and disrupted proving the involvement of each of these genes in pimaricin biosynthesis. The pimS0 gene encodes a relatively small acetate-activating PKS (approximately 193 kDa) that appears to work as a loading protein which "presents" the starter unit to the second PKS subunit. The pimS1 gene encodes a giant multienzyme (approximately 710 kDa) harboring 15 activities responsible for the first four cycles of chain elongation in pimaricin biosynthesis, resulting in formation of the polyene chromophore.     

Characterisation of actI-homologous DNA encoding polyketide synthase genes from the monensin producer Streptomyces cinnamonensis

Summary Cloned DNA encoding polyketide synthase (PKS) genes from one Streptomyces species was previously shown to serve as a useful hybridisation probe for the isolation of other PKS gene clusters from the same or different species. In this work, the actI and actIII genes, encoding components of the actinorhodin PKS of Streptomyces coelicolor, were used to identify and clone a region of homologous DNA from the monensin-producing organism S. cinnamonensis. A 4799 by fragment containing the S. cinnamonensis act-homologous DNA was sequenced. Five open reading frames (ORFs 1–5) were identified on one strand of this DNA. The five ORFs show high sequence similarities to ORFs that were previously identified in the granaticin, actinorhodin, tetracenomycin and whiE PKS gene clusters. This allowed the assignment of the following putative functions to these five ORFS : a heterodimeric -ketoacyl synthase (ORF1 and ORF2), an acyl carrier protein (ORF3), a -ketoacyl reductase (ORF5), and a bifunctional cyclase/dehydrase (ORF4). The ORFs are encoded in the order ORFl-ORF2-ORF3-ORF5-ORF4, and ORFs-1 and -2 show evidence for translational coupling. This act-homologous region therefore appears to encode a PKS gene cluster. A gene disruption experiment using the vector pGM 160, and other evidence, suggests that this cluster is not essential for monensin biosynthesis but rather is involved in the biosynthesis of a cryptic aromatic polyketide in S. cinnamonensis. An efficient plasmid transformation system for S. cinnamonensis has been established, using the multicopy plasmids pWOR120 and pWOR125.     

Complex organization of the Streptomyces avermitilis genes encoding the avermectin polyketide synthase.

The avermectin (Av) polyketide synthase (PKS) and erythromycin (Er) PKS are encoded by modular repeats of DNA, but the genetic organization of the modules encoding Av PKS is more complex than Er PKS. Sequencing of several related DNA fragments from Streptomyces avermitilis that are part of the Av biosynthetic gene cluster, revealed that they encode parts of large multifunctional PKS proteins. The Av PKS proteins show strong similarity to each other, as well as similarity to Er PKS proteins [Donadio et al., Science 252 (1991) 675-679] and fatty acid synthases. Partial DNA sequencing of the 65-kb region containing all the related sequence elements in the avr genes provides evidence for twelve modular repeats encoding FAS-like domains. The genes encoding the Av PKS are organized as two sets of six modular repeats which are convergently transcribed.