Neurobiological consequences of acute footshock stress: effects on tyrosine hydroxylase phosphorylation and activation in the rat brain and adrenal medulla

Stress activates selected neuronal systems in the brain and this leads to activation of a range of effector systems. Our aim was to investigate some of the relationships between these systems under basal conditions and over a 40‐min period in response to footshock stress. Specifically, we investigated catecholaminergic neurons in the locus coeruleus (LC), ventral tegmental area and medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) in the brain, by measuring tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) protein, TH phosphorylation and TH activation. We also measured the effector responses by measuring plasma adrenocorticotrophic hormone, corticosterone, glucose and body temperature as well as activation of adrenal medulla protein kinases, TH protein, TH phosphorylation and TH activation. The LC, ventral tegmental area and adrenal medulla all had higher basal levels of Ser19 phosphorylation and lower basal levels of Ser31 phosphorylation than the mPFC, presumably because of their cell body versus nerve terminal location, while the adrenal medulla had the highest basal levels of Ser40 phosphorylation. Ser31 phosphorylation was increased in the LC at 20 and 40 min and in the mPFC at 40 min; TH activity was increased at 40 min in both tissues. There were significant increases in body temperature between 10 and 40 min, as well as increases in plasma adrenocorticotropic hormone at 20 min and corticosterone and glucose at 20 and 40 min. The adrenal medulla extracellular signal‐regulated kinase 2 was increased between 10 and 40 min and Ser31 phosphorylation was increased at 20 min and 40 min. Protein kinase A and Ser40 phosphorylation were increased only at 40 min. TH activity was increased between 20 and 40 min. TH protein and Ser19 phosphorylation levels were not altered in any of the brain regions or adrenal medulla over the first 40 min. These findings indicate that acute footshock stress leads to activation of TH in the LC, pre‐synaptic terminals in the mPFC and adrenal medullary chromaffin cells, as well as changes in activity of the hypothalamic‐pituitary‐adrenal axis.

     

Dietary restriction enhances neurotrophin expression and neurogenesis in the hippocampus of adult mice

The adult brain contains small populations of neural precursor cells (NPC) that can give rise to new neurons and glia, and may play important roles in learning and memory, and recovery from injury. Growth factors can influence the proliferation, differentiation and survival of NPC, and may mediate responses of NPC to injury and environmental stimuli such as enriched environments and physical activity. We now report that neurotrophin expression and neurogenesis can be modified by a change in diet. When adult mice are maintained on a dietary restriction (DR) feeding regimen, numbers of newly generated cells in the dentate gyrus of the hippocampus are increased, apparently as the result of increased cell survival. The new cells exhibit phenotypes of neurons and astrocytes. Levels of expression of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and neurotrophin-3 (NT-3) are increased by DR, while levels of expression of high-affinity receptors for these neurotrophins (trkB and trkC) are unchanged. In addition, DR increases the ratio of full-length trkB to truncated trkB in the hippocampus. The ability of a change in diet to stimulate neurotrophin expression and enhance neurogenesis has important implications for dietary modification of neuroplasticity and responses of the brain to injury and disease.     

Amphetamine-induced locomotion and gene expression are altered in BDNF heterozygous mice

Administration of amphetamine overstimulates medium spiny neurons (MSNs) by releasing dopamine and glutamate from afferents in the striatum. However, these afferents also release brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) that protects striatal MSNs from overstimulation. Intriguingly, all three neurochemicals increase opioid gene expression in MSNs. In contrast, striatal opioid expression is less in naive BDNF heterozygous (BDNF(+/-)) vs. wild-type (WT) mice. This study was designed to determine whether partial genetic depletion of BDNF influences the behavioral and molecular response to an acute amphetamine injection. An acute injection of amphetamine [5 mg/kg, intraperitoneal (i.p.)] or saline was administered to WT and BDNF(+/-) mice. WT and BDNF(+/-) mice exhibited similar locomotor activity during habituation, whereas BDNF(+/-) mice exhibited more prolonged locomotor activation during the third hour after injection of amphetamine. Three hours after amphetamine injection, there was an increase of preprodynorphin mRNA in the caudate putamen and nucleus accumbens (Acb) and dopamine D(3) receptor mRNA levels were increased in the Acb of BDNF(+/-) and WT mice. Striatal/cortical trkB and BDNF, and mesencephalic tyrosine hydroxylase mRNA levels were only increased in WT mice. These results indicate that BDNF modifies the locomotor responses of mice to acute amphetamine and differentially regulates amphetamine-induced gene expression.     

Age-dependent effects of chronic stress on brain plasticity and depressive behavior

Exposure to chronic mild stress (CMS) is known to induce anhedonia in adult animals, and is associated with induction of depression in humans. However, the behavioral effects of CMS in young animals have not yet been characterized, and little is known about the long-term neurochemical effects of CMS in either young or adult animals. Here, we found that CMS induces anhedonia in adult but not in young animals, as measured by a set of behavioral paradigms. Furthermore, while CMS decreased neurogenesis and levels of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) in the hippocampus of adult animals, it increased these parameters in young animals. We also found that CMS altered alpha-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methylisoxazole-4-propionate (AMPA) receptor GluR1 subunit levels in the hippocampus and the nucleus accumbens of adult, but not young animals. Finally, no significant differences were observed between the effects of CMS on circadian corticosterone levels in the different age groups. The substantially different neurochemical effects chronic stress exerts in young and adult animals may explain the behavioral resilience to such stress young animals possess.     

The effect of postnatal manganese exposure on the NMDA receptor signaling pathway in rat hippocampus

Overexposure to manganese (Mn) is associated with neurological disorders in children. Evidence indicated that N‐methyl‐d ‐aspartate (NMDA) receptor signaling pathway was critical for neurobehavioral function. However, whether NMDA receptor signaling pathway contributes to Mn‐induced neurotoxicity remains unknown. In this study, newborn Sprague–Dawley rats were randomly assigned to four groups exposed to 0, 10, 20, and 30 mg/kg of Mn²⁺ by intraperitoneal injection (n = 10/group: five males and five females). After 3 weeks of Mn exposure, messenger RNA (mRNA) and protein expression of NMDA receptor subunits (NR1, NR2A, and NR2B), cAMP‐response element binding protein (CREB), and brain‐derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) in hippocampus were measured by real‐time quantitative RT‐PCR and Western blot. In Mn‐exposed rats, decreased mRNA and protein expression of NR1, NR2A, and NR2B, CREB, and BDNF was observed. The results imply that downregulated NMDA receptor signaling pathway may be of vital importance in the neuropathological process of Mn‐induced neurotoxicity.     

The three subtypes of atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) receptors are expressed in the rat adrenal gland

Atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) actions are mediated by highly selective and specific receptors. Three subtypes have been characterized and cloned: ANP receptor-A (or GC-A), -B (or GC-B) and -C (the so-called clearance receptor). In rat adrenal gland, the mRNA for each subtype was detected using ³⁵S-dUTP or digoxigenin-11-dUTP specific labeled probes, and in situ hybridization at light and electron microscopic levels respectively. The three subtypes were expressed the most abundantly in the zona glomerulosa. The amount of GC-A mRNA expression, quantified using macroautoradiography and densitometry, was higher than the amounts of GC-B mRNA and ANPR-C mRNA both in zona glomerulosa and medullary of adrenal gland. At electron microscopic level, the three subtypes of ANPR were revealed in glomerulosa cells. A noticeable signal was also present in the medullary area, especially for GC-A mRNA, in adrenaline-containing chromaffin cells. No signal was detected in noradrenaline-containing chromaffin cells. The subcellular localization of the three mRNAs is similar: in the cytoplasmic matrix and in the euchromatin of the nucleus in each cell of glomerulosa, and in the same compartments of the adrenaline-containing chromaffin cells. These data indicate that the adrenal gland is an important target tissue for ANP action both in glomerulosa cells and adrenaline-containing chromaffin cells. The mRNA expression levels were different for each ANPR subtype.     

A novel trimeric peptide, Neuropep-1-stimulating brain-derived neurotrophic factor expression in rat brain improves spatial learning and memory as measured by the Y-maze and Morris water maze

Abundant studies have shown possible links between low levels of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and neurological diseases such as Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, and depression, as well as stress and anxiety; therefore, BDNF could be a therapeutic target for neurological disorders. In the present study, a positional scanning-synthetic peptide combinatorial library was utilized to identify a peptide modulator of BDNF expression in the hippocampal neuronal cell line, H19-7. A novel tripeptide (Neuropep-1) induced a significant increase of BDNF mRNA and protein levels in H19-7 cells. Pre-treatment of TrkB inhibitor (K252a) did not block Neuropep-1-induced BDNF up-regulation. These results indicate that Neuropep-1 may up-regulate BDNF expression that might be independent of the TrkB receptor pathway. Tail vein injection of Neuropep-1 significantly up-regulated BDNF expression, TrkB phosphorylation, and its downstream signals including activation of Akt, ERK, and cAMP response element binding in the rat hippocampus. To evaluate improvement of spatial learning and memory (SLM) by Neuropep-1-induced BDNF up-regulation, the Y-maze and Morris water maze tests were performed. These results showed Neuropep-1 injection improved SLM performance with increase of BDNF and TrkB expression, activation of TrkB downstream signals in rat hippocampus compared with the control group. However, phosphorylation levels of TrkB were not changed when it was normalized to the level of TrkB expression. The difference on TrkB phosphorylation in Neuropep-1-injected rats may be affected by behavioral tests. These results suggest that Neuropep-1 may improve SLM via activation of the BDNF/TrkB signaling pathway in the rat hippocampus. Therefore, our findings represent that Neuropep-1 might be a potential candidate for treatment of learning and memory disorders as well as neurological diseases involving the abnormal expression of BDNF.     

Elevated expression of brain‐derived neurotrophic factor facilitates visual imprinting in chicks

With the aim of elucidating the neural mechanisms of early learning, we studied the role of brain‐derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) in visual imprinting in birds. The telencephalic neural circuit connecting the visual Wulst and intermediate medial mesopallium is critical for imprinting, and the core region of the hyperpallium densocellulare (HDCo), situated at the center of this circuit, has a key role in regulating the activity of the circuit. We found that the number of BDNF mRNA‐positive cells in the HDCo was elevated during the critical period, particularly at its onset, on the day of hatching (P0). After imprinting training on P1, BDNF mRNA‐positive cells in the HDCo increased in number, and tyrosine phosphorylation of TrkB was observed. BDNF infusion into the HDCo at P1 induced imprinting, even with a weak training protocol that does not normally induce imprinting. In contrast, K252a, an antagonist of Trk, inhibited imprinting. Injection of BDNF at P7, after the critical period, did not elicit imprinting. These results suggest that BDNF promotes the induction of imprinting through TrkB exclusively during the critical period.     

慢性束缚应激大鼠中枢糖皮质激素受体变化及中药复方的影响

目的:研究慢性束缚应激时大鼠脑内糖皮质激素受体的变化以及逍遥散、四君子汤、金匮肾气丸三种中药复方对其影响.方法:制作大鼠束缚应激模型,用特制束缚架连续束缚7 d与21 d,每天3 h用免疫组织化学方法结合图像分析检测中枢(海马CA1区、齿状回、大脑皮质)糖皮质激素受体的变化.结果:慢性束缚应激后,大鼠海马CA1区、大脑皮层和齿状回GR免疫反应阳性细胞平均总面积和阳性细胞数目在慢性应激的早期(7d模型组)明显增多(P＜0.05),免疫反应强度明显增强(P＜0.01).在慢性应激的后期(21 d模型组),则表现为相关脑区GR免疫反应阳性细胞平均总面积和阳性细胞数目均明显减少(P＜0.05),免疫反应强度明显减弱(P＜0.01).中药复方各组相关脑区神经元GR免疫反应阳性细胞平均总面积和阳性细胞数目较21 d模型组明显增高,免疫反应强度明显增强,三给药组之间并无明显差异,说明三给药组均能使GR含量保持于较高的状态,同时能保持GR免疫活性,其中又以逍遥散作用为明显.结论:逍遥散、四君子汤和金匮肾气丸明显逆转糖皮质激素受体下降趋势.     

应激抑郁发生中糖皮质激素对BDNF信号通路的影响

脑源性神经营养因子(brain derived neurotrophic factor,BDNF)是一个关键性的神经营养因子,它既影响突触的形成和重构,又可以通过突触前和突触后机制改变突触传递的效能,从而对神经结构和功能可塑性发挥调节作用。BDNF主要通过结合TrkB受体激活细胞内信号系统来发挥它积极的生物学效应。研究表明,中枢神经系统BDNF表达或功能的变化与抑郁症的发生相关,而应激引起糖皮质激素(glucocorticoid,GC)的增加也是导致抑郁发生的重要原因之一。值得注意的是,GCs的增加会影响BDNF,一方面GCs降低BDNF的表达,另一方面GCs受体GR与BNDF受体TrkB相互作用。过多的GCs干扰了BDNF信号,使BDNF功能受到影响,导致抑郁患者脑内,尤其是海马结构的损害。就抑郁发生中糖皮质激素对BDNF功能影响的研究进展作一介绍。     

Role of glial cell derived neurotrophic factor in the protective effect of smilagenin on rat mesencephalic dopaminergic neurons damaged by MPP+

Tyrosine hydroxylase immunohistochemical analysis revealed that in cultured mesencephalic dopaminergic neurons smilagenin (SMI), added prior to 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPP+), protected against the drop of neuron number and neurite outgrowth length caused by MPP+. Addition of anti-GDNF and/or anti-GFR alpha 1 functional antibodies to the medium prior to SMI, eliminated mostly, though incompletely, the action of SMI. The expression of glial cell derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF) mRNA, but not GDNF receptor alpha1 (GFR alpha 1) or receptor tyrosine kinase mRNA in MPP+ intoxicated neurons was markedly elevated as early as 2h after the addition of SMI with a peak at 24-48 h. Therefore, an important route of the protective action of SMI on dopaminergic neurons is to stimulate intrinsic GDNF expression.     

Combined brain‐derived neurotrophic factor with extinction training alleviate impaired fear extinction in an animal model of post‐traumatic stress disorder

Impaired fear memory extinction (Ext) is one of the hallmark symptoms of post‐traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). However, since the precise mechanism of impaired Ext remains unknown, effective interventions have not yet been established. Recently, hippocampal‐prefrontal brain‐derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) activity was shown to be crucial for Ext in naïve rats. We therefore examined whether decreased hippocampal‐prefrontal BDNF activity is also involved in the Ext of rats subjected to a single prolonged stress (SPS) as a model of PTSD. BDNF levels were measured by enzyme‐linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), and phosphorylation of TrkB was measured by immunohistochemistry in the hippocampus and medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) of SPS rats. We also examined whether BDNF infusion into the ventral mPFC or hippocampus alleviated the impaired Ext of SPS rats in the contextual fear conditioning paradigm. SPS significantly decreased the levels of BDNF in both the hippocampus and mPFC and TrkB phosphorylation in the ventral mPFC. Infusion of BDNF 24 hours after conditioning in the infralimbic cortex (ILC), but not the prelimbic cortex (PLC) nor hippocampus, alleviated the impairment of Ext. Since amelioration of impaired Ext by BDNF infusion did not occur without extinction training, it seems the two interventions must occur consecutively to alleviate impaired Ext. Additionally, BDNF infusion markedly increased TrkB phosphorylation in the ILC of SPS rats. These findings suggest that decreased BDNF signal transduction might be involved in the impaired Ext of SPS rats, and that activation of the BDNF‐TrkB signal might be a novel therapeutic strategy for the impaired Ext by stress.     

Differential effects of imatinib on PDGF-induced proliferation and PDGF receptor signaling in human arterial and venous smooth muscle cells

Platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF) has been implicated in smooth muscle cell (SMC) proliferation, a key event in the development of myointimal hyperplasia in vascular grafts. Recent evidence suggests that the PDGF receptor (PDGFR) tyrosine kinase inhibitor, imatinib, can prevent arterial proliferative diseases. Because hyperplasia is far more common at the venous anastomosis than the arterial anastomosis in vascular grafts, we investigated whether imatinib also inhibited venous SMC (VSMC) proliferation, and examined possible differences in its mechanism of action between VSMC and arterial SMC (ASMC). Human ASMC and VSMC were stimulated with PDGF-AB, in the presence or absence of imatinib (0.1-10 microM). Proliferation was assayed using the 5-bromo-2'-deoxyuridine (BrdU) incorporation assay, while PDGFR, Akt and ERK1/2-mitogen activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling pathways were investigated by immunoblotting. The proliferative response to PDGF at 50 and 100 ng/ml was 32 and 43% greater, respectively, in VSMC than in ASMC. Similarly, PDGF-stimulated proliferation was more sensitive to inhibition by imatinib in VSMC than ASMC (IC(50) = 0.05 microM vs. 0.4 microM; P < 0.01). Imatinib also more effectively inhibited PDGF-induced phosphorylation of PDGFRbeta and Akt in VSMC, compared to ASMC. These data highlight inherent pharmacodynamic differences between VSMC and ASMC in receptor and cell signaling functions and suggest that imatinib therapy may be useful for the prevention of venous stenosis in vascular grafts.