Using the movement patterns of reintroduced animals to improve reintroduction success

Despite their importance to conservation, reintroductions are still a risky endeavor and tend to fail, highlighting the need for more efficient post-release monitoring techniques. Reintroduced animals are released into unfamiliar novel environ ments and must explore their surroundings to gain knowledge in order to survive. According to theory, knowledge gain should be followed by subsequent changes to the animal＇s movement behavior, making movement behavior an excellent indicator of reintroduction progress. We aim to conceptually describe a logical process that will enable the inclusion of behavior （in particular, movement behavior） in management decision-making post-reintroductions, and to do so, we provide four basic components that a manager should look for in the behaviors of released animals. The suggested components are release-site fidelity, recurring locations, proximity to other individuals, and individual variation in movement behavior. These components are by no means the only possible ones available to a manager, but they provide an efficient tool to understanding animals＇ decision-making based on ecological theory; namely, the exploration-exploitation trade-off that released animals go through, and which underlies their behavior. We demonstrate our conceptual approach using data from two ungulate species reintroduced in Israel： the Persian fallow deer Dama mesopotamica and the Arabian oryx Oryx leucoryx [Current Zoology 60 （4）： 515-526, 2014] .     

Spontaneous modulation of a dynamic balance between bacterial genomic stability and mutability: roles and molecular mechanisms of the genetic switch

Bacteria need a high degree of genetic stability to maintain their species identities over long evolutionary times while retaining some mutability to adapt to the changing environment.It is a long unanswered question that how bacteria reconcile these seemingly contradictory biological properties.We hypothesized that certain mechanisms must maintain a dynamic balance between genetic stability and mutability for the survival and evolution of bacterial species.To identify such mechanisms,we analyzed bacterial genomes,focusing on the Salmonella mismatch repair(MMR)system.We found that the MMR gene mutL functions as a genetic switch through a slipped-strand mispairing mechanism,modulating and maintaining a dynamic balance between genetic stability and mutability during bacterial evolution.This mechanism allows bacteria to maintain their phylogenetic status,while also adapting to changing environments by acquiring novel traits.In this review,we outline the history of research into this genetic switch,from its discovery to the latest findings,and discuss its potential roles in the genomic evolution of bacteria.     

Genetics of barley tiller and leaf development

In cereals, tillering and leaf development are key factors in the concept of crop ideotype, introduced in the 1960 s to enhance crop yield, via manipulation of plant architecture. In the present review, we discuss advances in genetic analysis of barley shoot architecture,focusing on tillering, leaf size and angle. We also discuss novel phenotyping techniques, such as 2 D and 3 D imaging, that have been introduced in the era of phenomics, facilitating reliable trait measurement. We discuss the identification of genes and pathways that are involved in barley tillering and leaf development,highlighting key hormones involved in the control of plant architecture in barley and rice. Knowledge on genetic control of traits related to plant architecture provides useful resources for designing ideotypes for enhanced barley yield and performance.     

Formidable females redux:male social integration into female networks and the value of dynamic multilayer networks

The development of multilayer network techniques is a boon for researchers who wish to understand how different interaction layers might influence each other,and how these in turn might influence group dynamics.Here,we investigate how integration between male and female grooming and aggression interaction networks influences male power trajectories in vervet monkeys Chlorocebus pygerythrus.Our previous analyses of this phenomenon used a monolayer approach,and our aim here is to extend these analyses using a dynamic multilayer approach.To do so,we constructed a temporal series of male and female interaction layers.We then used a multivariate multilevel autoregression model to compare cross-lagged associations between a male's centrality in the female grooming layer and changes in male Elo ratings.Our results confirmed our original findings:changes in male centrality within the female grooming network were weakly but positively tied to changes in their Elo ratings.However,the multilayer network approach offered additional insights into this social process,identifying how changes in a male's centrality cascade through the other network layers.This dynamic view indicates that the changes in Elo ratings are likely to be short-lived,but that male centrality within the female network had a much stronger impact throughout the multilayer network as a whole,especially on reducing intermale aggression(i.e.,aggression directed by males toward other males).We suggest that multilayer social network approaches can take advantage of increased amounts of social data that are more commonly collected these days,using a variety of methods.Such data are inherently multilevel and multilayered,and thus offer the ability to quantify more precisely the dynamics of animal social behaviors.     

Insights from the study of complex systems for the ecology and evolution of animal populations

Populations of animals comprise many individuals,interacting in multiple contexts,and displaying heterogeneous behaviors.The interactions among individuals can often create population dynamics that are fundamentally deterministic yet display unpredictable dynamics.Animal populations can,therefore,be thought of as complex systems.Complex systems display properties such as nonlinearity and uncertainty and show emergent properties that cannot be explained by a simple sum of the interacting components.Any system where entities compete,cooperate,or interfere with one another may possess such qualities,making animal populations similar on many levels to complex systems.Some fields are already embracing elements of complexity to help understand the dynamics of animal populations,but a wider application of complexity science in ecology and evolution has not occurred.We review here how approaches from complexity science could be applied to the study of the interactions and behavior of individuals within animal populations and highlight how this way of thinking can enhance our understanding of population dynamics in animals.We focus on 8 key characteristics of complex systems:hierarchy,heterogeneity,selforganization,openness,adaptation,memory,nonlinearity,and uncertainty.For each topic we discuss how concepts from complexity theory are applicable in animal populations and emphasize the unique insights they provide.We finish by outlining outstanding questions or predictions to be evaluated using behavioral and ecological data.Our goal throughout this article is to familiarize animal ecologists with the basics of each of these concepts and highlight the new perspectives that they could bring to variety of subfields.     

Capturing,protecting and restoring plant diversity in the UK: RBG Kew and the Millennium Seed Bank

Ex situ seed banking is a practical and cost-effective means of preserving wild plant diversity and a crucial complement to the in situ conservation and restoration of species and habitats. As pressures on the natural environment have grown, so has the call for seed banks to provide scientifically-robust,practical solutions to seed-related problems in nature conservation, from single-species recovery and reintroduction to the restoration of complex, dynamic communities at the largest scales. In this paper, we discuss how the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew and its Millennium Seed Bank have responded to this call in the United Kingdom. We demonstrate that banked seed collections can provide a range of otherwiseunavailable, high quality, known-origin, genetically-diverse biological materials. The data, expertise and specialist facilities that accompany these collections are also valuable, helping overcome constraints to the collection, production and effective use of native seed. Challenges remain-to ensure ex situ collections protect the species and genetic diversity that will enable plants to adapt to a changing environment, and to find new ways for seed banks to mobilise their resources at a landscape scale.     

Nonlinear maternal effects on personality in a rodent species with fluctuating densities

Consistent among individual variation in behavior,or animal personality,is present in a wide variety of species.This behavioral variation is maintained by both genetic and environmental factors.Parental effects are a special case of environmental variation and are expected to evolve in populations experiencing large fluctuations in their environment.They represent a non-genetic pathway by which parents can transmit information to their offspring,by modulating their personality.While it is expected that parental effects contribute to the observed personality variation,this has rarely been studied in wild populations.We used the multimammate mouse Mastomys natalensis as a model system to investigate the potential effects of maternal personality on offspring behavior.We did this by repeatedly recording the behavior of individually housed juveniles which were born and raised in the lab from wild caught females.A linear correlation,between mother and offspring in behavior,would be expected when the personality is only affected by additive genetic variation,while a more complex relationship would suggests the presence of maternal effects.We found that the personality of the mother predicted the behavior of their offspring in a non-linear pattern.Exploration behavior of mother and offspring was positively correlated,but only for slow and average exploring mothers,while this correlation became negative for fast exploring mothers.This may suggests that early maternal effects could affect personality in juvenile M.natalensis,potentially due to density-dependent and negative frequency-dependent mechanisms,and therefore contribute to the maintenance of personality variation.     

Long-term overlap of social and genetic structure in free-ranging house mice reveals dynamic seasonal and group size effects

Associating with relatives in social groups can bring benefits such as reduced risk of aggression and increased likelihood of cooperation.Competition among relatives over limited resources,on the other hand,can induce individuals to alter their patterns of association.Population density might further affect the costs and benefits of associating with relatives by altering resource competition or by changing the structure of social groups;preventing easy association with relatives.Consequently,the overlap between genetic and social structure is expected to decrease with increasing population size,as well as during times of increased breeding activity.Here,we use multi-layer network techniques to quantify the similarity between long-term,high resolution genetic,and behavioral data from a large population of free-ranging house mice(Mus musculus domesticus),studied over 10years.We infer how the benefit of associating with genetically similar individuals might fluctuate in relation to breeding behavior and environmental conditions.We found a clear seasonal effect,with decreased overlap between social and genetic structure during summer months,characterized by high temperatures and high breeding activity.Though the effect of overall population size was relatively weak,we found a clear decrease in the overlap between genetic similarity and social associations within larger groups.As well as longer-term within-group changes,these results reveal population-wide short-term shifts in how individuals associate with relatives.Our study suggests that resource competition modifies the trade-off between the costs and benefits of interacting with relatives.     

Growth substrates alter aboveground plant microbial and metabolic properties thereby influencing insect herbivore performance

The gut microbiome of plant-eaters is affected by the food they eat, but it is currently unclear how the plant metabolome and microbiome are influenced by the substrate the plant grows in and how this subsequently impacts the feeding behavior and gut microbiomes of insect herbivores. Here, we use Plutella xylostella caterpillars and show that the larvae prefer leaves of cabbage plants growing in a vermiculite substrate to those from plants growing in conventional soil systems. From a plant metab...     

A reductionist approach to dissecting grain weight and yield in wheat

Grain yield is a highly polygenic trait that is influenced by the environment and integrates events throughout the life cycle of a plant. In wheat, the major grain yield components often present compensatory effects among them, which alongside the polyploid nature of wheat,makes their genetic and physiological study challenging. We propose a reductionist and systematic approach as an initial step to understand the gene networks regulating each individual yield component. Here, we focus on grain weight and discuss the importance of examining individual subcomponents, not only to help in their genetic dissection, but also to inform our mechanistic understanding of how they interrelate. This knowledge should allow the development of novel combinations, across homoeologs and between complementary modes of action, thereby advancing towards a more integrated strategy for yield improvement. We argue that this will break barriers in terms of phenotypic variation,enhance our understanding of the physiology of yield, and potentially deliver improved on-farm yield.     

A Toolkit of CRISPR-Based Genome Editing Systems in Drosophila

The last couple of years have witnessed an explosion in development of CRISPR-based genome editing technologies in cell lines as well as in model organisms. In this review, we focus on the applications of this popular system in Drosophila. We discuss the effectiveness of the CRISPR/Cas9 systems in terms of delivery, mutagenesis detection, parameters affecting efficiency, and off-target issues, with an emphasis on how to apply this powerful tool to characterize gene functions.     

Do animal eyespots really mimic eyes？

The diversity of anti-predator adaptations in the natural world has long been an active area of research in evolutionary and behavioural biology. A common visually-obvious feature found on prey are ＇eyespots＇, being approximately circular mark- ings often with concentric rings and conspicuous colours. These are found on a range of animals, especially adult and larval Lepidoptera and fish. One of the most widespread functions of eyespots seems to be to intimidate or startle predators： delaying, preventing or halting an attack. However, while the fact that they can influence predators in this way is tmcuntroversial, the mechanism（s） behind why they are effective is debated. Traditionally, they have been assumed to work by mimicking the eyes of the predator＇s own enemies, and much research in this field is conducted under the implicit or explicit assumption that this theory is correct. However, eyespots might work simply by being highly salient stimuli that promote sensory overload, biases, or neo- phobic reactions in predators. A range of recent studies has aimed to test these alternatives. Here, we critically evaluate this work and what it tells us about the mechanisms underlying eyespot function. We conclude that although eye mimicry is plausible, there remains a lack of evidence to support it and most observations are at least equally consistent with alternative mechanisms. Finally we also discuss how the debate can be resolved     

Die in pieces:How Drosophila sheds light on neurite degeneration and clearance

Dendrites and axons are delicate neuronal membrane extensions that undergo degeneration after physical injuries. In neurodegenerative diseases, they often degenerate prior to neuronal death. Understanding the mechanisms of neurite degeneration has been an intense focus of neurobiology research in the last two decades. As a result, many discoveries have been made in the molecular pathways that lead to neurite degeneration and the cell-cell interactions responsible for the subsequent clearance of neuronal debris. Drosophila melanogaster has served as a prime in vivo model system for identifying and characterizing the key molecular players in neurite degeneration, thanks to its genetic tractability and easy access to its nervous system. The knowledge learned in the fly provided targets and fuel for studies in other model systems that have further enhanced our understanding of neurodegeneration. In this review, we will introduce the experimental systems developed in Drosophila to investigate injuryinduced neurite degeneration, and then discuss the biological pathways that drive degeneration. We will also cover what is known about the mechanisms of how phagocytes recognize and clear degenerating neurites, and how recent findings in this area enhance our understanding of neurodegenerative disease pathology.     

Sex differences in morphine-induced behavioral sensitization and social behaviors in ICR mice

Gender and genetic strain are two prominent variants that influence drug abuse. Although certain sexrelated behavioral responses have been previously characterized in ICR mice, little is known about the effects of sex on morphine-induced behavioral responses in this outbred strain. Therefore, in this study, we investigated the sex differences of morphine-induced locomotion, anxiety-like and social behaviors in ICR mice. After morphine or saline exposure for four consecutive days(twice daily), increased locomotion, more time spent in the central area, as well as attenuated rearing and self-grooming behaviors were found in morphine-treated females in an open field; no differences were found in locomotion and the time spent in the central area between male and female controls. When interacting with the samesex individuals, female controls were engaged in more social investigation, following, body contacting and self-grooming behaviors than controls; morphine exposure reduced contacting and self-grooming behaviors in females; in contrast, these effects were not found in males. These results indicate that female ICR mice are more prosocial and are more susceptible to morphine exposure than males.     

The Bionic Anticipation of Natural Disasters

After major natural disasters, such as the recent earthquake-tsunami event in South Asia, reports appear about the mysterious ability of animals to anticipate and to escape the impending danger. This is an opportunity to recall the long history of this phenomenon in the traditions of different civilizations, to evaluate Chinese efforts, 30-40 years ago, to use this phenomenon for earthquake prediction, and to judge its state of acceptance in modem science. An effort is made to introduce this phenomenon as a research field of modem bionics. The timing is favorable since, increasingly, infrared thermal anomalies, monitored from satellite, suggesting litho-atmospheric processes, are found to precede earthquakes. They were unexpected by seismologists and are here suggested to essentially reflect the energy conversion patterns responsible for the signals monitored by animals. The aim is to learn from animals in the long term how natural disasters can better be anticipated, and how simple technical warning systems can be developed. Some challenges are analyzed. One is interpretation of the nature of energy release prior to the main earthquake disaster resulting in ＂macro-anomaly＂ precursors, another is better to understand the effect on animal senses. The role of non-linear cooperative phenomena including tsunamitype waves is emphasized.     

Apoptosis commitment--translating survival signals into decisions on mitochondria

Most defective and unwanted cells die by apoptosis, cells without damaging the surrounding tissue. Once a an exquisitely controlled genetic programme for removing such cell has committed to apoptosis, the process is remarkably efficient, and is completed within a few minutes of initiation. This point of no retum for an apoptotic cell is commonly held to be the point at which the outer mitochondrial membrane is permeabilised, a process regulated by the Bcl-2 family of proteins. How these proteins regulate this decision point is central to diseases such as cancer where apoptotic control is lost. In this review, we will discuss apoptotic signalling and how a cell makes the irreversible decision to die. We will focus on one set of survival signals, those derived by cell adhesion to the extracellular matrix （ECM）, and use these to highlight the complexities of apoptotic signalling. In particular, we will illustrate how multiple signalling pathways converge to determine critical cell fate decisions.     

Relationships between personality traits and the physiological stress response in a wild mammal

Glucocorticoids(GCs)are involved in the regulation of an animal's energetic state.Under stressful situations,they are part of the neuroendocrine response to cope with environmental challenges.Animals react to aversive stimuli also through behavioral responses,defined as coping styles.Both in captive and wild populations,individuals differ in their behavior along a proactive-reactive continuum.Proactive animals exhibit a bold,active explorative and social personality,whereas reactive ones areshy,less active-explorative and less social.Here,we test the hypothesis that personality traits and physiological responses to stressors covary,with more proactive individuals having a less pronounced GC stress response.In wild populations of invasive gray squirrels Sciurus carolinensis,we measuredfecal glucocorticoid metabolites(FGMs),an integrated measure of circulating GCs,and 3 personality traits(activity,sociability,and exploration)derived from open field test(OFT)and mirror image stimulation(MIS)test.Gray squirrels had higher FGMs in Autumn than in Winter and males with scrotal testes had higher FGMs than nonbreeding males.Personality varied with body mass and population density.Squirrels expressed more activity exploration at higher than at lower density and heavier squirrels had higher scores for activity exploration than animals that weighed less.Variation in FGM concentrations was not correlated with the expression of the 3 personality traits.Hence,our results do not support a strong association between the behavioral and physiological stress responses but show that in wild populations,where animals experience varying environmental conditions,the GC endocrine response and the expression of personality are uncorrelated traits among individuals.     

Ghrelin fluctuation,what determines its production？

Ghrelin, a 28 amino acid gut brain peptide, acts as an endogenous ligand for its receptor, the growth hormone secretagogue receptor, to exercise a variety of functions ranging from stimulation of growth hormone secretion, regulation of appetite and energy metabolism, and cell protection to modulation of inflammation. This review summarizes the advance in the regulation of ghrelin expression and secretion. We introduce the structure of ghrelin promoter, the processing and modification of ghrelin precursor, and the regulation mechanism in these processes. Then we discuss factors found to be important in the regulation of ghrelin production, including nutrients, hormones, and autonomic nervous system. Finally, we outline the alteration in the level of ghrelin in certain physiological and pathological status.     

Benefiting others and self: Production of vitamins in plants

Vitamins maintain growth and development in humans, animals, and plants. Because plants serve as essential producers of vitamins, increasing the vitamin contents in plants has become a goal of crop breeding worldwide. Here, we begin with a summary of the functions of vitamins. We then review the achievements to date in elucidating the molecular mechanisms underlying how vitamins are synthesized, transported, and regulated in plants. We also stress the exploration of variation in vitamins by the use of forward genetic approaches, such as quantitative trait locus mapping and genome-wide association studies. Overall, we conclude that exploring the diversity of vitamins could provide new insights into plant metabolism and crop breeding.     

What is the sound of fear？ Behavioral responses of white-crowned sparrows Zonotrichia leucophrys to synthesized nonlinear acoustic phenomena

Fear and anxiety may be adaptive responses to life-threatening situations, and animals may communicate fear to others vocally. A fundamental understanding of fear inducing sounds is important for both wildlife conservation and management because it helps us understand how to design repellents and also how （and why） animals may be negatively impacted by anthropogenic sounds. Nonlinear phenomena--sounds produced by the desynchronization of vibrations in a sound production system-are commonly found in stress-induced animal vocalizations, such as in alarm calls, mobbing calls, and fear screams. There are several functional hypotheses for these nonlinear phenomena. One specific hypothesis is the unpredictability hypothesis, which suggests that because nonlinear phenomena are more variable and somewhat unpredictable, animals are less likely to habituate to them. Animals should, therefore, have a prolonged response to sounds with nonlinear phenomena than sounds without them. Most of the studies involving nonlinear phenomena have used mammalian subjects and conspecific stimuli. Our study fo- cused on white-crowned sparrows （Zonotrichia leucophrys ssp. oriantha） and used synthesized acoustic stimuli to investigate behavioral responses to stimuli with and without nonlinear phenomena. We predicted that birds would be less relaxed after hearing a stimulus with a nonlinear component. We calculated the difference from baseline of proportion of time spent in relaxed behaviors and performed pair-wise comparisons between a pure tone control stimulus and each of three experimental stimuli, including a frequency jump up, a frequency jump down, and white noise. These comparisons showed that in the 30q50 s after the playback experiment, birds were significantly less relaxed after hearing noise or an abrupt frequency jump down an octave but not an abrupt frequency jump up an octave or a pure tone. Nonlinear phenomena, therefore, may be generally arousing to animals and may explain why these acoustic properties are commonly fou