基于景感生态学对生态修复的再思考

总结了生态修复工程的现状、我国在推进生态修复上的举措,指出未来生态修复的着重点是要找到更科学且高效的生态修复途径,以及将本地人福祉有机整合到生态修复当中以全面提高生态系统服务效果的方法。阐述了目前常见的生态修复方式,对其各自通常的适用情况及作用特征进行分析,并在此基础上得出一种生态修复的理想模式。阐述了景感生态学的定义,分析了景感生态学、景感营造以及其在稳定、提高生态系统服务及其价值方面的作用机制;讨论了如何基于景感生态学和景感营造分步实现生态修复的理想模式,其重点在于营造景感生态系统,使生态系统服务得到充分发挥,为本地谋取更大福祉。山水林田湖草生态修复工程的决策者、规划者和实施者要在观念、策略、方法以及评价四个方面做出转变。     

废黄河三角洲生态修复设想

生态系统退化导致生态系统为人类生存和发展提供的物品和服务功能下降,从而阻碍区域经济和社会发展。本文以废黄河三角洲为例,分析了废黄河三角洲生态系统退化的自然和人为应力以及生态系统的退化过程。针对废黄河三角洲生态现状,提出了生态修复的目标及措施,采取自然恢复和人工干预的手段,加强水生生态系统修复和生物多样性的提高,实现区域经济与生态协调发展。     

山水林田湖草生态保护修复的理论支撑体系研究

山水林田湖草生态保护修复关系到我国生态文明建设和美丽中国建设进程,关系到国家生态安全和中华民族永续发展。开展山水林田湖草生态保护修复是生态文明建设的重要内容,是贯彻绿色发展理念的有力举措,也是破解当前生态环境与经济发展之间难题的必然要求。通过总结梳理当前我国山水林田湖草生态保护修复工作的进展与概况,立足于“山水林田湖草是生命共同体”的理论核心,详细阐释了山水林田湖草生态保护修复的内涵及理论体系。山水林田湖草生命共同体的基础理论是以生态系统生态学为支撑,基于流域生态学、恢复生态学和景观生态学的理论诠释山水林田湖草生命共同体的时空区域尺度及流域内部各生态系统之间的耦合机制,通过复合生态系统理论构建山水林田湖草生命共同体的社会、经济、自然生态系统的“架构”体系,明确了流域可持续发展是山水林田湖草生命共同体的最终发展目标。在构建山水林田湖草生态保护修复理论支撑体系的基础上,进一步总结凝练了山水林田湖草生态保护修复的技术体系,包括生态保护、修复与恢复技术、生态建设技术、生态功能提升技术、生态服务优化技术与监督管理技术等,为我国山水林田湖草生态保护修复工作提供坚实的理论和技术支撑体系。     

Science, Art, or Application—the "Karma" of Restoration Ecology

The present state of restoration ecology is far away from Bradshaw’s “acid test for ecology.” The conclusions drawn from the series of papers in this issue and from the Jena workshop suggest some directions in which the field may progress. More attention must be paid to the degraded state, which should be evaluated by its specific features and carefully analyzed before any restoration plan is laid down. Restoration goals have to be realistic, which includes the appreciation of globally changing conditions, resulting in a paradigm‐shift toward “forward‐restoration.” Basically, the transition from the degraded state conditions to the target state is a kind of succession that is manipulated by the application of goal‐orientated and system‐specific disturbances. Whenever possible, restorationists should step back and make use of naturally occurring succession, which requires a sophisticated restoration strategy, involving flexible management responses, multiple alternative target states, robust measurements for the restoration progress, and careful long‐term monitoring. The unique feature of restoration ecology is the involvement of socioeconomic decisions, and conceptual frameworks for ecological restoration have to implement the specific links to natural succession. To bridge the gap between ecological theory and on the ground restoration, it is essential that restoration practice is translated into the vocabulary and thinking of basic ecology. If all these aspects are integrated, ecological restoration as an application—and restoration ecology as an applied science—may develop into an acid test for our understanding of interactions between people and their environment, rather than for pure ecology.     

Setting Effective and Realistic Restoration Goals: Key Directions for Research

Restoration ecology has made significant advances in the past few decades and stands to make significant contributions both to the practical repair of damaged ecosystems and the development of broader ecological ideas. I highlighted four main areas where progress in research can assist with this. First, we need to enhance the translation of recent advances in our understanding of ecosystem and landscape dynamics into the conceptual and practical frameworks for restoration. Second, we need to promote the development of an ability to correctly diagnose ecosystem damage, identify restoration thresholds, and develop corrective methodologies that aim to overcome such thresholds. This involves understanding which system characteristics are important in determining ecosystem recovery in a range of ecosystem types, and to what extent restoration measures need to overcome threshold and hysteresis effects. A third key requirement is to determine what realistic goals for restoration are based on the ecological realities of today and how these will change in the future, given ongoing changes in climate and land use. Finally, there is a need for a synthetic approach which draws together the ecological and social aspects of the issues surrounding restoration and the setting of restoration goals.     

The Recent Double Paradigm Shift in Restoration Ecology

The fields of ecology and ecological restoration possess an enormous potential for cross‐fertilization of ideas and information. Ecology could play a major role in informing practical restoration, whereas restoration projects, often situated in quite extreme environments, provide an excellent opportunity to test ecological theories. Efforts to base restoration on more of a scientific foundation, however, have recently started gathering momentum, following the call for such a link by Tony Bradshaw in 1987. On another level, as we gather more experience and information from restoration projects, it is becoming equally clear that often neglected socioeconomic and political aspects of restoration should not be forgotten in the overall approach to restoration. The two paradigm shifts in ecological restoration, toward more scientific foundation and better inclusion of socioeconomic limits and opportunities, locate restoration firmly in the transdisciplinary arena, with all the concomitant challenges and opportunities. In this sense, ecological restoration could be compared to the medical profession, where both a sound knowledge of science and human nature are a prerequisite for success in healing.     

生态系统退化程度诊断：生态恢复的基础与前提

 生态系统退化程度诊断是进行生态恢复与重建的基础和前提。然而目前的生态系统化程度诊断大多停留在定性的水平,如何对退化生态系统的退化程度进行定量的诊断就成为恢复生态学与生态恢复实践所面临的一个迫切且十分关键的问题。在综述前人研究的基础上,比较系统地论述了生态系统退化程度诊断的一系列问题：绘制了描述生态系统退化程度的概念模型;认为在实践中退化程度诊断的参照系统可以选择相应的受人类或自然干扰程度比较轻的“自然生态系统”;归纳了生态系统退化程度诊断的生物途径、生境途径、生态过程途径、生态系统功能/服务途径、景观途径;把诊断方法分为单途径单因子诊断法、单途径多因子诊断法、多途径综合诊断法;分析了生态系统退化程度诊断的可能指标（体系）;给出了生态系统退化程度诊断的策略与流程,并对生态系统退化程度诊断及生态恢复过程中应注意的事项进行了讨论。建议我国加强典型生态系统退化程度的综合诊断研究。     

区域生态恢复规划及其关键问题

生态恢复是一项长期的根本性生态建设措施,需要有区域性整体规划与长期维持的具体安排。目前,区域生态恢复规划却未受到足够的关注。重点讨论了区域生态恢复规划的内涵、理论基础、规划原则及关键问题,这些问题的探讨对于提升生态恢复效率,增强生态恢复的科学性具有重要意义。区域生态恢复规划从宏观整体性的角度对区域内所实施的生态恢复工程进行统筹规划,对区域内实施的具体恢复规划具有指导意义。区域生态恢复以不同生态功能区的主导生态功能为恢复目标。在退化生态系统诊断的基础上,确定在哪里恢复。通过局地恢复治理与区域调控相结合的恢复策略,实现生态链与产业链的结合,其本质则是实现生态建设与社会经济的协调发展。     

Stretch Goals and Backcasting: Approaches for Overcoming Barriers to Large-Scale Ecological Restoration

The destruction and transformation of ecosystems by humans threatens biodiversity, ecosystem function, and vital ecosystem services. Ecological repair of ecosystems will be a major challenge over the next century and beyond. Restoration efforts to date have frequently been ad hoc, and site or situation specific. Although such small‐scale efforts are vitally important, without large‐scale visions and coordination, it is unlikely that large functioning ecosystems will ever be constructed by chance through the cumulative effects of small‐scale projects. Although the problems of human‐induced environmental degradation and the need for a solution are widely recognized, these issues have rarely been addressed on a sufficiently large‐scale basis. There are numerous barriers that prevent large‐scale ecological restoration projects from being proposed, initiated, or carried through. Common barriers include the “shifting baseline syndrome,” the scale and complexity of restoration, the long‐term and open‐ended nature of restoration, funding challenges, and preemptive constraint of vision. Two potentially useful approaches that could help overcome these barriers are stretch goals and backcasting. Stretch goals are ambitious long‐term goals used to inspire creativity and innovation to achieve outcomes that currently seem impossible. Backcasting is a technique where a desired end point is visualized, and then a pathway to that end point is worked out retrospectively. A case study from the Scottish Highlands is used to illustrate how stretch goals and backcasting could facilitate large‐scale restoration. The combination of these approaches offers ways to evaluate and shape options for the future of ecosystems, rather than accepting that future ecosystems are victims of past and present political realities.     

以疏勒河流域为例的“山水林田湖草”生态修复多尺度耦合框架及方法

为解决过去保护修复工程只考虑单要素、单一类型生态系统的问题,我国于2016年开展了“山水林田湖草”生态修复工程,旨在通过整体、系统、综合的方法对各类生态系统进行统筹治理。然而,目前的工程治理中仍然存在对系统内部及系统间耦合概念理解不充分、系统耦合机制不明晰、对“尺度”的关注不足、缺少科学的分析方法等问题,制约了保护修复的成效。对此,首先将多个尺度下的耦合研究方法进行归纳总结,并以国家重点冰川水源涵养区及生物多样性保护优先区——疏勒河流域为例,将耦合方法用于分析要素间、自然生态系统间的耦合关系,最后基于该实例研究,提出多尺度耦合分析框架与“升尺度”保护修复模式,以期帮助相关决策者明晰“山水工程”中要素、系统间的耦合关系,增强治理的科学性与有效性,进而推进我国社会与环境的可持续发展。     

地下生态系统对生态恢复的影响

生态系统破坏与退化的加剧使生态恢复成为全球性的挑战课题,近年来生态恢复的研究已逐渐由地上向地下部分转移,地下部分对生态系统退化所起的作用、机理和过程已倍受关注。本文通过探讨恢复生态学的关键概念,从土壤、地下水循环、生物系统3个方面探讨了地下生态系统对生态恢复的作用机理和反馈机制。针对目前的研究现状,指出地下生态系统研究中存在的问题,并提出今后需要深入研究的几个方向:1)生态系统退化程度的诊断及其标准;2)基于诊断标准,针对不同退化生态系统类型选定恢复的目标植物群落,如何改善土壤性质,确定土壤性质的改善程度;确定地下水位及土壤含水量的阈值;如何有效选择、引入和接种土壤生物;3)生态系统地上和地下部分整合及恢复过程中监测指标的确定。     

景感生态学在流域生态系统保护与修复实践中的应用——以大凌河流域北票段为例

生态系统保护与修复已成为我国生态文明建设的一项核心内容，自2016年以来，在全国24个省（自治区、直辖市）已开展了25个山水林田湖草生态保护修复工程试点工程。以大凌河流域北票段为研究区，探讨了景感生态学理论在山水林田湖草生态系统保护与修复实践中的应用。基于景感生态学理论，构建大凌河流域北票段生态系统保护与修复综合治理框架，以保持、改善和提升生态系统服务，实现可持续发展为目标，构建了"一中心、二重点、五要素、六工程"的生态系统保护与修复景感空间体系，并基于此将大凌河流域北票段生态系统保护与修复分为5个重要治理区域，形成"一带四区"的生态安全格局，提出了应用景感生态学理论，构建区域居民的共同行为规范，引导并实现人类对自然生态系统的有利影响，进一步提升生态系统保护与修复效果的对策建议。通过大凌河流域北票段的分析案例，以景感营造的理念开展区域生态系统保护与修复顶层设计，为促进区域可持续发展提供思路和途径。     

Alien Invasions, Ecological Restoration in Cities and the Loss of Ecological Memory

After a community or ecosystem is lost, it may leave behind an ecological memory. The site history, soil properties, spores, seeds, stem fragments, mycorrhizae, species, populations, and other remnants may influence the composition of the replacement community or ecosystem to varying degrees. The remnants may also hold the site to a trajectory that has implications for ecological restoration. This is true in urban situations in particular where repeated disturbance has masked the history of the site. The ecological memory remaining may be insufficient for a site to heal itself; restoration activities are required to direct the future of the site. Conversely, in light of climate change and other rapidly changing environments, the existing ecological memory may be poorly suited to the new conditions and restoration projects need to create new and perhaps novel ecosystems. The loss of ecological memory facilitates the establishment of foreign invasive species. These invasives may eventually create a new stability domain with its own ecological memory and degree of resilience. To be successful, invasive species control must address both internal within patch memory of invasives and external between patch memory. Further research is necessary to document and conserve ecological memory for ecological restoration in response to future ecosystem changes.     

恢复及演替过程中的土壤生态学考虑

 人类社会的日益扩张,导致人类加速占据地球表面景观,并胁迫地球上生态系统提供不断增长的资源需求和废物吸收能力。所以保护尚未“开放”的自然生态系统及恢复退化的生态系统成为人类长期生存的重要保证。该文着重讨论了恢复过程中的土壤生态学问题。土壤是所有陆地生态系统的结构与功能基础。土壤微生物与动物的种群变化,土壤有机质的积累,及主要元素地球化学循环的改变是恢复生态的重要环节。生态恢复与演替有许多共性,所以演替理论对于认识生态系统恢复中的结构与功能变化有着很大帮助。与自然演替不同的是,人的积极参与在生态恢复中占有中心位置。从最初样地的确立与物种的选择,到后续的灌溉与施肥管理,人的选择影响着土壤的演化,生态系统的发展方向,和最终恢复生态的结果。为保障恢复生态系统的可持续性,短期的工作目标,如提供养分促进植物生长,务必与长期的工作目标,如土壤的恢复相结合。植物与土壤的相互反馈是生态恢复成功的重要标志。成功的生态恢复不仅是对现有生态学理论的“试金检验”,也是推动生态学学科发展的重要原动力。     

An Evaluation of the Short‐Term Progress of Restoration Combining Ecological Assessment and Public Perception

Ecological restoration centers on the reestablishment of ecological processes and the integrity of degraded ecosystems, but its success also depends on public acceptance and support. In this study, we evaluated the short‐term ecological effects of different restoration treatments in Iceland. Furthermore, we tested the public perception of aesthetic and recreational values of these revegetated areas. Predefined soil and vegetation indicators were measured, and a survey, based on a questionnaire and photographs of the different areas, was used for gauging public perception. Our results indicate that different restoration treatments triggered different succession trajectories. The vegetation composition of areas seeded with grasses seemed to be on a trajectory toward relatively undisturbed reference ecosystems, whereas areas seeded with nonnative lupine seemed to be developing a novel ecosystem. Results of the survey demonstrated that people valued the appearance of revegetated areas higher than that of the eroded control areas, with the exception of areas seeded with lupine. The visual perception of each restoration treatment corresponded well with the ecological factors and revealed both a social and an ecological rationale against the use of lupine in land restoration. The results indicate that the design of restoration projects should be based on both an analysis of sociocultural priorities and an understanding of possible trajectories of ecosystem development associated with the available restoration methods to avoid results that are neither socially acceptable nor ecologically feasible.     

重点脆弱生态区生态恢复的综合效益评估

全球变化和人类活动的剧烈影响导致对人类福祉至关重要的生态系统功能和服务的改变,生态系统退化已成为全球面临的严重问题之一。综合评价生态恢复效益是目前衡量恢复工程实施效果的重要途径。以中国重点脆弱生态区为研究对象,选取产水、土壤保持、食物供给、固碳4项服务,构建研究区生态恢复综合效益评估指标体系,并通过Welch T方法检验恢复显著和不显著区生态系统服务指标,对比分析研究区生态恢复综合效益的变化情况。结果表明:2000年到2015年,生态恢复工程的实施使脆弱区生态系统服务整体增长20.86%;综合效益由波动变化转为稳定,并稳定在其均值0.55附近,其中喀斯特区综合效益最高,达0.75以上;生态系统类型变化主要是农田、森林、草地和聚落生态系统之间的转移,森林和草地生态系统的增加使得生态系统服务水平升高;T检验的结果表明生态恢复带来综合效益的改善和生态系统服务能力的提高。     

西北干旱荒漠区生态系统可持续管理理念与模式

结合对西北干旱区水资源短缺、资源开发中的生态与经济矛盾突出、气候变暖可能加剧干旱区荒漠化以及生态水权与长效保障机制缺失等问题的分析诊断,探讨了荒漠区生态系统可持续管理面临的问题与难点,分析提出了荒漠生态系统植被保育的生态水位与生态阈值,阐述了荒漠-绿洲过渡带生态融合以及绿洲生态系统安全的生态防护梯度等干旱区生态系统管理理念;结合干旱区极端环境自然条件,在多年现场试验基础上,研发集成了退化群落改造与生态多样性构建技术、植物群落结构优化配置、组装与生态融合技术、生态系统恢复水分利用与生态自维持技术以及胡杨萌蘖更新技术等多种适宜荒漠植被恢复与重建的技术模式,并进行了成功实践和试验示范,为干旱荒漠区生态系统可持续管理提供了重要科技支撑。     

景观生态学与退化生态系统恢复

退化生态系统的恢复是一项艰巨任务,它需要考虑到所要恢复的退化生态系统的结构,多样性和其动态的整体性和长期性。现在对于退化生态系统恢复研究已经要使生态学家们关注受损生态系统的理论和实际问题。退化生态系统恢复所面临的挑战是理解和利用生态演替理论来完成并加速恢复进程。恢复的主要目标是建立一个自维持的,由不同的群落或生态系统组成的能够满足不同需要如生物保护和粮食生产需要的景观。景观生态学关注于大的空间尺度的生态学问题。景观生态学研究方法可以为退化生态系统恢复实践提供指导。在解决退化生态系统的恢复问题时,景观生态学的方法在理论和实践上是有效的。景观生态学中的核心概念和其一般原理斑块形状、生态系统间相互作用、镶嵌系列等都同退化生态系统的恢复有着密切的关系。如恢复地点的选择和适当的恢复要素的空间配置。在评价退化生态系统的恢复是否取得成功,利用景观生态学也具有重要的意义。景观生态学理论如景观格局与景观异质性理论,干扰理论和尺度理论都能够指导退化生态系统的恢复实践。同样地,退化生态系统的恢复可以为景观生态学的研究提供非常恰当的实验场。寓景观生态学思想于退化生态系统恢复过程是一种新的有效途径。     

“山水林田湖草沙生命共同体”耦合框架、模型与展望

“山水林田湖草沙生命共同体”系统保护与修复是我国生态文明建设的重要内容。明确生命共同体的耦合机制,是科学地进行生态保护和修复工作的关键。针对当前生命共同体耦合机制不清、理论和方法不健全的问题,从耦合的视角出发,在小流域尺度上单一生态系统内部生态要素的耦合、流域尺度上不同生态系统之间的耦合、区域尺度上人与自然的耦合三个方面进行整合,在此基础上探讨了多尺度山水林田湖草沙耦合理论,提出了一般性的山水林田湖草沙耦合理论框架。梳理并比较了当前主要的生态系统模型、景观模型、统计学模型以及复合生态系统的多模型耦合方法,综合提出了一个适用于"山水林田湖草沙生命共同体"耦合研究方法。对进一步完善山水林田湖草沙一体化保护修复提出了建议,包括：一是构建多源信息数据库,推进定量化耦合机制研究;二是开展全生命周期监测与评估,探索适应性治理路径;三是强化多元主体参与,完善协同保护机制。     

Insights from a Cross‐Disciplinary Seminar: 10 Pivotal Papers for Ecological Restoration

Restoration ecology is a deepening and diversifying field with current research incorporating multiple disciplines and infusing long‐standing ideas with fresh perspectives. We present a list of 10 recent pivotal papers exemplifying new directions in ecological restoration that were selected by students in a cross‐disciplinary graduate seminar at the University of California, Berkeley. We highlight research that applies ecological theory to improve restoration practice in the context of global change (e.g. climate modeling, evaluation of novel ecosystems) and discuss remaining knowledge gaps. We also discuss papers that recognize the social context of restoration and the coupled nature of social and ecological systems, ranging from the incorporation of cultural values and Traditional Ecological Knowledge into restoration, to the consideration of the broader impacts of markets on restoration practices. In addition, we include perspectives that focus on improving communication between social and natural scientists as well as between scientists and practitioners, developing effective ecological monitoring, and applying more integrated, whole‐landscape approaches to restoration. We conclude with insights on recurrent themes in the papers regarding planning restoration in human‐modified landscapes, application of ecological theory, improvements to restoration practice, and the social contexts of restoration. We share lessons from our cross‐disciplinary endeavor, and invite further discussion on the future directions of restoration ecology through contributions to our seminar blog site http://restecology.blogspot.com .