Lethal pneumonia in a captive juvenile chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes) due to human-transmitted human respiratory syncytial virus (HRSV) and infection with Streptococcus pneumoniae

Background  During an outbreak of respiratory disease in captive chimpanzees ( Pan troglodytes ), gorillas ( Gorilla gorilla ), Bornean orangutans ( Pongo pygmaeus ), and red-capped mangabeys ( Cercocebus torquatus ) also staff members showed non-specific upper respiratory signs. One infant female chimpanzee with severe respiratory symptoms died despite immediate medical treatment and was submitted for necropsy.
Methods  Routine post mortem, histological and bacteriological examinations were conducted. Additionally lung tissue samples form the chimpanzee and swab samples from the staff members and the other primates were examined by PCR.
Results  A severe catarrhal to purulent bronchopneumonia and an interstitial pneumonia were found and human respiratory syncytial virus (HRSV) as well as Streptococcus pneumoniae was detected in lung samples by PCR. Swab samples from one animal keeper revealed the same HRSV sequence as of the chimpanzee.
Conclusions  Therefore, it is suggested that the outbreak of respiratory disease within a zoological institution was due to transmission of HRSV between both human and primates.     

Subspecies composition and founder contribution of the captive U.S. chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes) population

Chimpanzees are presently classified into three subspecies: Pan troglodytes verus from west Africa, P.t. troglodytes from central Africa, and P.t. schweinfurthii from east Africa. A fourth subspecies (P.t. vellerosus), from Cameroon and northern Nigeria, has been proposed. These taxonomic designations are based on geographical origins and are reflected in sequence variation in the first hypervariable region (HVR-I) of the mtDNA D-loop. Although advances have been made in our understanding of chimpanzee phylogenetics, little has been known regarding the subspecies composition of captive chimpanzees. We sequenced part of the mtDNA HVR-I region in 218 African-born population founders and performed a phylogenetic analysis with previously characterized African sequences of known provenance to infer subspecies affiliations. Most founders were P.t. verus (95.0%), distantly followed by the troglodytes schweinfurthii clade (4.6%), and a single P.t. vellerosus (0.4%). Pedigree-based estimates of genomic representation in the descendant population revealed that troglodytes schweinfurthii founder representation was reduced in captivity, vellerosus representation increased due to prolific breeding by a single male, and reproductive variance resulted in uneven representation among male P.t.verus founders. No increase in mortality was evident from between-subspecies interbreeding, indicating a lack of outbreeding depression. Knowledge of subspecies and their genomic representation can form the basis for phylogenetically informed genetic management of extant chimpanzees to preserve rare genetic variation for research, conservation, or possible future breeding.     

ORIGINAL ARTICLE: Tetraparesis resembling acute transverse myelitis in a captive chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes): long‐term care and recovery

Background A 24‐year‐old, male chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes) developed acute tetraparesis. Magnetic resonance imaging showed a diffuse T2‐weighted hyperintensive lesion, indicating inflammation at the C1–2 level. All infective, autoimmune, and vascular investigations were unremarkable. Results and Conclusions The chimpanzee’s condition most resembled acute transverse myelitis (ATM) in humans. The chimpanzee was in severe incapacitated neurological condition with bedridden status and required 24‐hour attention for 2 months followed by special care for over a year. Initially, corticosteroid therapy was performed, and his neurological symptoms improved to some extent; however, the general condition of the chimpanzee deteriorated in the first 6 months after onset. Pressure ulcers had developed at various areas on the animal’s body, as the bedridden status was protracted. Supportive therapy was continued, and the general condition, appetite, mobility, and pressure ulcers have slowly but synergistically recovered over the course of 2 years.     

Bipedality in chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes) and bonobo (Pan paniscus): testing hypotheses on the evolution of bipedalism

A host of ecological, anatomical, and physiological selective pressures are hypothesized to have played a role in the evolution of hominid bipedalism. A referential model, based on the chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes) and bonobo (Pan paniscus), was used to test through experimental manipulation four hypotheses on the evolution of hominid bipedalism. The introduction of food piles (Carry hypothesis) increased locomotor bipedality in both species. Neither the introduction of branches (Display hypothesis) nor the construction of visual barriers (Vigilance hypothesis) altered bipedality in either species. Introduction of raised foraging structures (Forage hypothesis) increased postural bipedality in chimpanzees. These experimental manipulations provided support for carrying of portable objects and foraging on elevated food-items as plausible mechanisms that shaped bipedalism in hominids.     

Clinical signs,diagnostics and successful treatment of a myocarditis in an adult chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes)

A chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes) was presented with lethargic behaviour. Echocardiography and abnormal cardiac and inflammatory biomarkers revealed a myocarditis. The animal fully recovered after prolonged treatment with losartan and carvedilol. This is the first report of the diagnosis and successful treatment of myocarditis in this species.     

Relationship between sunlight exposure, housing condition, and serum vitamin D and related physiologic biomarker levels in captive chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes)

In primates, the primary source of vitamin D is synthesis in the skin through sun exposure. Decreased sun exposure may lead to vitamin D deficiency and consequently other health issues. In laboratory, sanctuary, and zoo settings, chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) may be housed indoors for prolonged periods of time without regular exposure to unfiltered sunlight. However, little research has examined the relationship between housing conditions and vitamin D serum levels in captive chimpanzees. In this study, we retrospectively compared serum levels of total vitamin D, calcium, ionic calcium, phosphorous, albumin, and alkaline phosphatase in 18 female and 12 male chimpanzees as they cycled between indoor-only and indoor-outdoor enclosures. Total vitamin D was significantly lower and alkaline phosphatase significantly higher when subjects were in the indoor-only enclosures compared with when they had regular access to outdoor enclosures. A vitamin D effect occurred only in young and prime-adult animals. Changes were significant in female but not in male chimpanzees. Calcium, ionic calcium, phosphorus, and albumin did not differ between indoor-only and indoor-outdoor enclosures. However, female chimpanzees exhibited significantly lower calcium and phosphorous levels while in the indoor-only enclosures. These results suggest that adult captive chimpanzees experience vitamin D deficiency when housed without regular access to unfiltered sunlight and that these effects may be more acute for adult female animals.     

Differences between the normal vaginal bacterial community of baboons and that of humans

Humans and baboons (Papio spp.) share considerable anatomical and physiological similarities in their reproductive tracts. Given the similarities, it is reasonable to expect that the normal vaginal microbial composition (microbiota) of baboons would be similar to that of humans. We have used a 16S rRNA phylogenetic approach to assess the composition of the baboon vaginal microbiota in a set of nine animals from a captive facility and six from the wild. Results show that although Gram‐positive bacteria dominate in baboons as they do in humans, there are major differences between the vaginal microbiota of baboons and that of humans. In contrast to humans, the species of Gram‐positive bacteria (Firmicutes) were taxa other than Lactobacillus species. In addition, some groups of Gram‐negative bacteria that are not normally abundant in humans were found in the baboon samples. A further level of difference was also seen even within the same bacterial phylogenetic group, as baboon strains tended to be more phylogenetically distinct from human strains than human strains were with each other. Finally, results of our analysis suggests that co‐evolution of microbes and their hosts cannot account for the major differences between the microbiota of baboons and that of humans because divergences between the major bacterial genera were too ancient to have occurred since primates evolved. Instead, the primate vaginal tracts appear to have acquired discrete subsets of bacteria from the vast diversity of bacteria available in the environment and established a community responsive to and compatible with host species physiology. Am. J. Primatol. 73:119–126, 2011. © 2010 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Assessing the effects of cognitive experiments on the welfare of captive chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) by direct comparison of activity budget between wild and captive chimpanzees

We investigated the effects of cognitive experiments by direct comparison of activity budgets between wild and captive chimpanzees. One goal of captive management is to ensure that the activity budgets of captive animals are as similar as possible to those of their wild counterparts. However, such similarity has rarely been achieved. We compared the activity budget among three groups of chimpanzees: wild chimpanzees in Bossou (Guinea, n = 10), and captive chimpanzees who participated in cognitive experiments (experimental chimpanzees, n = 6) or did not participate in the experiments (nonexperimental chimpanzees, n = 6) at the Primate Research Institute (Japan). The experimental chimpanzees voluntarily participated in computer‐controlled cognitive tasks and small pieces of fruits were provided as rewards. The data from captivity were obtained on the experimental days (weekdays) and nonexperimental days (weekends). In both study sites, we followed each chimpanzee from about 7 a.m. until the time when chimpanzees started to rest in the evening. The behaviors were recorded every 1 min. The results showed that on weekdays, feeding time and resting time of the experimental chimpanzees were almost the same as those of wild chimpanzees. However, for the nonexperimental chimpanzees, feeding time was significantly shorter and resting time was longer than those of the wild chimpanzees. In contrast, no difference was found in feeding time or resting time of the two groups of captive chimpanzees on weekends. The results suggested that the cognitive experiments worked as an efficient method for food‐based enrichment. Am. J. Primatol. 73:1231–1238, 2011. © 2011 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Invention and modification of a new tool use behavior: ant-fishing in trees by a wild chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes verus) at Bossou, Guinea

Wild chimpanzees are known to have a different repertoire of tool use unique to each community. For example, "ant-dipping" is a tool use behavior known in several chimpanzee communities across Africa targeted at driver ants (Dorylus spp.) on the ground, whereas "ant-fishing," which is aimed at carpenter ants (Camponotus spp.) in trees, has primarily been observed among the chimpanzees of Mahale in Tanzania. Although the evidence for differences between field sites is accumulating, we have little knowledge on how these tool use behaviors appear at each site and on how these are modified over time. This study reports two"ant-fishing" sessions which occurred 2 years apart by a young male chimpanzee at Bossou, Guinea. Ant-fishing had never been observed before in this community over the past 27 years. During the first session, at the age of 5, he employed wands of similar length when ant-fishing in trees to those used for ant-dipping on the ground, which is a customary tool use behavior of this community. Two years later, at the age of 7, his tools for ant-fishing were shorter and more suitable for capturing carpenter ants. This observation is a rare example of innovation in the wild and does provide insights into problem-solving and learning processes in chimpanzees.     

Blood groups in the species survival plan®, European endangered species program,and managed in situ populations of bonobo (Pan paniscus), common chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes), gorilla (Gorilla ssp.), and orangutan (Pongo pygmaeus ssp.)

Blood groups of humans and great apes have long been considered similar, although they are not interchangeable between species. In this study, human monoclonal antibody technology was used to assign human ABO blood groups to whole blood samples from great apes housed in North American and European zoos and in situ managed populations, as a practical means to assist blood transfusion situations for these species. From a subset of each of the species (bonobo, common chimpanzee, gorilla, and orangutans), DNA sequence analysis was performed to determine blood group genotype. Bonobo and common chimpanzee populations were predominantly group A, which concurred with historic literature and was confirmed by genotyping. In agreement with historic literature, a smaller number of the common chimpanzees sampled were group O, although this O blood group was more often present in wild‐origin animals as compared with zoo‐born animals. Gorilla blood groups were inconclusive by monoclonal antibody techniques, and genetic studies were inconsistent with any known human blood group. As the genus and, specifically, the Bornean species, orangutans were identified with all human blood groups, including O, which had not been reported previously. Following this study, it was concluded that blood groups of bonobo, common chimpanzees, and some orangutans can be reliably assessed by human monoclonal antibody technology. However, this technique was not reliable for gorilla or orangutans other than those with blood group A. Even in those species with reliable blood group detection, blood transfusion preparation must include cross‐matching to minimize adverse reactions for the patient. Zoo Biol 30:427–444, 2011. © 2010 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Food Supply and Chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii) Party Size in the Budongo Forest Reserve,Uganda

A central issue in socioecology is the nature of the relationship between an organism's environment and its social structure. In chimpanzees, the fission-fusion social system is thought to minimize feeding competition for primary dietary components: ephemeral, dispersed patches of ripe fruit. Intragroup feeding competition is thought to force individuals into small parties. Informal observations in the Sonso region of the Budongo forest had suggested that in this habitat, food supply was such that feeding competition was less important in determining grouping patterns than elsewhere. We used data collected on food supply and party sizes over a 4-year period to investigate this suggestion. In accord with theoretical expectation, sizes of foraging parties fluctuated with the size of food patches. However, party sizes showed either negative or no relationship with habitat-wide measures of food abundance. Likewise party sizes showed little relationship to overall measures of food dispersion. For important dietary items, both fruit and leaves had patchy distributions, though the degree of clumping was not strong, and fruit was not more clumped than leaves. Generally, abundant food appeared to be less patchy, and chimpanzees appeared to use more patches as food became more abundant rather than forming larger parties. We suggest that both dispersal and abundance need to be considered when investigating the impact of food supply on grouping patterns, and that the importance of food as a factor in determining chimpanzee grouping patterns declines with increasing levels of abundance.