Multi-profile fine-resolution palynological and micro-charcoal analyses at Esklets,North York Moors,UK, with special reference to the Mesolithic-Neolithic transition

Multi-proxy palaeoecological data from two peat profiles at Esklets on the North York Moors upland provide a record of vegetation changes for much of the Holocene. Possible vegetation disturbance in the late Mesolithic and activity in the Neolithic and Bronze Age are recognised. In both profiles fine resolution analyses have been applied to the period leading up to the mid-Holocene Elm Decline which in this upland has been dated to ca. 4,800 bp (uncalibrated ¹⁴C years). Disturbance impacts at the Esklets Elm Decline are low scale, but phases of woodland disturbance, which include cereal (Hordeum)-type pollen, occur in both profiles ca. 5,200 bp, some centuries before the Elm Decline on the North York Moors, but similar to dates for this key palynological horizon in nearby lowland areas. A protocol is presented for the separation of Hordeum (cultivated species) and Glyceria (wild grass) pollen. The Esklets sites record disturbances during the late Mesolithic-Neolithic transition. These pre-Elm Decline disturbance phases represent either early penetration of neolithic cultivator-pastoralists into this upland or the activities of final mesolithic foragers. No neolithic archaeological sites occur nearby, but a ‘Terminal Mesolithic’ flint site dominated by microlith ‘rod’ forms occurs close to the palaeoecological sites. Such rod sites are dated in northern England to the centuries leading up to 5,000 bp and so are contemporary with the disturbance phases that included Hordeum-type pollen at Esklets. The cultural context of these disturbance phases and the role of ‘rod’ microlith sites during the Mesolithic-Neolithic transition require further focused research to clarify all issues relating to this important period.     

Earliest evidence of a primitive cultivar of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Vitis vinifera</Emphasis> L. during the Bronze Age in Sardinia (Italy)

The discovery of the Nuragic culture settlement of Sa Osa, Cabras-Oristano, Sardinia, has made it possible to investigate the domestication status of waterlogged uncharred grape pips that were recovered from three wells dating from the Middle and Late Bronze Age (ca. 1350–1150 bc). Applying the stepwise linear discriminant analysis method, a morphological comparison of archaeological seeds and modern wild and cultivated Sardinian grapes pips was performed to determine the similarities between them. The results showed that the archaeological seeds from the Middle Bronze Age have intermediate morphological traits between modern wild and cultivated grape pips from Sardinia. In contrast, the analyses performed on the archaeological seeds from the Late Bronze Age showed a high degree of similarity with the modern cultivars in Sardinia. These results provide the first evidence of primitive cultivated Vitis vinifera in Sardinia during the Late Bronze Age (1286–1115 cal bc, 2σ). This evidence may support the hypothesis that Sardinia could have been a secondary domestication centre of the grapevine, due to the presence of ancient cultivars that still exhibit the phenotypic characteristics of wild grapes.     

Boreal forest dynamics in north-eastern Sweden during the last 10,000 years based on pollen analysis

A pollen record obtained from a 2.2-m sediment succession deposited in a small lake in the province of Västerbotten, north-eastern Sweden, reveals the presence of continuous forest cover since 8,500 calendar years before present (cal b.p.). Forest with abundant Pinus (pine) and Betula (birch) initially colonized the area, followed by a dominance of deciduous trees, primarily Betula, from ca. 8,000 to ca. 3,200 cal b.p. Pollen accumulation rates of Quercus (oak), Ulmus (elm) and Tilia (linden) suggest the possible local presence of these thermophilous tree species during this period. The climate gradually became colder and moister around 3,500 cal b.p. and an increased abundance of Sphagnum spores indicates paludification. Picea (spruce) became established around 3,200 cal b.p. and less than 500 years later this was the dominant tree species around the lake. The fire frequency as inferred from charcoal particles exhibits a general increase from ca. 3,000 cal b.p. with subsequent charcoal accumulation maxima at around 2,800 cal b.p., 1,700 cal b.p. and in recent time. The human influence on vegetation was significant during the last 200–300 years. Soil erosion increased substantially and fern spores amount to ca. 55% of the total pollen assemblage in the uppermost samples. These results suggest an extensive anthropogenic impact on the local forest ecosystem, with abundant logging, burning and ditching in the vicinity of the lake. Independent evidence of sub-recent human-induced environmental change is provided by historical accounts. Complementary information on catchment soil development and aquatic nutrient status was provided by records of magnetic susceptibility and elemental carbon, and nitrogen contents obtained from the same sediment core.     

Cultivation strategies at the ancient Luanzagangzi settlement on the easternmost Eurasian steppe during the late Bronze Age

A significant body of recent research shows that the first east–west transmission of cereal crops, Triticum spp. (wheat) and Hordeum spp. (barley) from the west and millets (Setaria italica, foxtail millet, and Panicum miliaceum, common millet) from the east, took place sometime around the start of the 5th millennium bp, with part of the most likely route lying along the Tianshan mountains in northern Xinjiang, China. Here the dominant economic adaptation is, and was in prehistory, not crop-based agriculture but transhumant pastoralism. The site of Luanzagangzi (ca. 3,300–2,900 cal bp) on the northern slope of the Tianshan is one of only a handful of Bronze Age sites in Xinjiang with evidence for well-established crop cultivation. In this paper, we report on ten samples collected for phytolith analysis from a 4 m deep profile at Luanzagangzi. The results show evidence that a range of cereal crops was being grown (multi-cropping), Triticum spp., Hordeum spp., Setaria italica and Panicum miliaceum. Pooideae, Paniceae woody plants, Phragmites (reed) and Cyperaceae (sedges) were presumably also exploited for subsistence purposes in this area. We speculate that the strategy of growing a range of crops, wheat/barley, common millet and foxtail millet was adopted by the Bronze Age population in this region as a supplement to herding. The findings of this study help us to understand the dispersal of cultivation strategies across the Eurasian steppe via the Xinjiang region, and the communication between China and the West in the late Bronze Age.     

Studies in the taxonomy of the Polypores II

The following genera are redefined:Albatrellus S. F. Gray,Heterobasidion Bref.,Haploporus Bond. et Sing. ex Sing.,Fomitopsis P. Karst. andRigidoporus Murrill two new subgenera are described:Polyporus subgen.Dendropolyporus Pouz. (type:Polyporus umbellatus) andRigidoporus subgen.Neooxyporus Pouz. (type:Polyporus latemarginatus); the genusOxyporus (Bourd. etGalz.)Donk is classified as a subgenus of the genusRigidoporus,Murrill and the generaBjerkandera P. Karst. andLeptoporus quél. are classified as subgenera of the genusTyromyces P. Karst. The new subfamilyAlbatrelloideae Pouz. (genera:Albatrellus andGrifola) is described and 14 new specific combinations are made. The new genusIrpicodon Pouz. (type:Irpex pendulus) is proposed.     

Neolithic land use in the northern Boreal zone: high-resolution multiproxy analyses from Lake Huhdasjärvi,south-eastern Finland

Two high-resolution pollen and charcoal analyses were constructed from sediments obtained from a small bay in eastern Finland in order to gain information on human activity during the Neolithic Stone Age, 5200–1800 bc. We used measurements of loss on ignition (LOI), magnetic susceptibility and geochemical analyses to describe the sedimentological characteristics. Palaeomagnetic dating and measurements of ¹³⁷Cs-activity were supported by ¹⁴C-datings. The analyses revealed human activity between 4400 and 3200 bc, which is synchronous with archaeological cultures defined through different stages of Comb Ware pottery types and Middle Neolithic pottery types with asbestos as a primary temper. Direct evidence of Hordeum cultivation was dated to 4040–3930 cal bc. According to the pollen data, more significant effort was put into the production of fibres from hemp and lime than the actual cultivation of food.     

Differentiation of species in Gonioloboceras

The type specimen ofGonioloboceras goniolobum (Meek), rediscovered by Spath in the British Museum, is the foundation for a more accurate comparative study of this and other species ofGonioloboceras.Gonioloboceras described asG. goniolobum byElias in 1938 is differentiated asGonioloboceras schmidti, new species. Suture sets (new term) for several growth stages inG. goniolobum (Meek),G. welleriSmith,G. schmidtiElias, G.eliasiMiller &Owen, andG. asiaticumLibrovitch are assembled and used for differentiation of the species.The Kazakhstan goniatite faunule containingG. asiaticum is considered of very late Pennsylvanian age.     

Flechtensystematische Studien IV. Die GattungGyalidea Lett

Im Artikel wird die ursprüngliche Gattungsdiagnose derGyalidea Lett. um die Merkmale der Pilzkomponente ergänzt. Die angenommenen verwandtschaftlichen Beziehungen derGyalidea zu der FamilieAsterothyriaceae werden diskutiert. Alle bisher festgestellten Arten mit Übersichten der revidierten Proben werden kurz beschrieben. Neue Taxa und Kombinationen:Gyalidea dodgei spec. n.,G. epiphylla spec. n.,G. mayaguezensis spec. n.,G. portoricensis spec. n.,G. fritzei (Stein) comb. n.,G. fritzei var.rivularis (Eitn.) comb. n.,G. hyalinescens (Nyl.) comb. n.,G. lecideopsis var.convarians (Nyl.) comb. n.,G. lecideopsis var.stigmatoides (Nyl.) comb. n.,G. mexicana (B. de Lesd.) comb. n. undG. subscutellaris (Vězda) comb. n.     

Beiträge zur Sedimentation und fossilführung des hunsrückschiefers 14.Viriatellina fuchsi (Kutscher, 1931) im Hunsrückschiefer und im Tentaculitenknollenkalk thüringens

The new genusViriatellina Bou?ek, 1964 unites the two older species namedNovakia gemündina Runzheimer, 1932 andTentaculites fuchsi Kutscher, 1931. ThusViriatellina gemuendina (Runzheimer) is cancelled, on the other handViriatellina fuchsi (Kutscher) remains valid. RecentlyViriatellina fuchsi (Kutscher) has been found in the tentaculitiferous limestone of Thuringia.     

Direct evidence of heathland management in the early Bronze Age (14th century <Emphasis Type="SmallCaps">b</Emphasis>.<Emphasis Type="SmallCaps">c</Emphasis>.) from the grave-mound Skelhøj in western Denmark

Plant macrofossil analysis of soil samples from the grave-mound Skelhøj, western Jutland in Denmark, showed that heather sods had been used as building material. The original vegetation horizon, which was still preserved within the sods allowed the reconstruction of the original vegetation cover of the Bronze Age landscape. It was therefore possible to determine the land-use systems of the Bronze Age societies there during the 14th century b.c. The sods derived from a dry to medium-dry heathland community previously used as pasture. Many grasses and herbs indicate that it was not a very well developed (or old) heathland that was used for the building material of the mound, but a newly re-established heath cover above an older one that had been burnt some years before the sod-cutting activities took place. Charred finds of roots, twig fragments, flowers and seeds of Calluna vulgaris L. (heather) dominated the plant spectrum. Cuscuta epithymum L. (dodder) was found in 31% of the sod samples. This parasitic plant is known for successfully spreading on burnt heather plants that have started to re-develop with new shoots.     

Vegetation change during the Bronze Age studied in a multi-proxy approach: use of wood linked to charcoal analysis

During recent archaeological excavations in the alpine valley of Montafon, western Austria, a Bronze and early Iron Age settlement cluster located at about 1,000 m a.s.l. was excavated. The human impact on the woodland resulting from these prehistoric settlement activities has been evaluated by the analysis of charred plant macro remains from cultural layers from a hilltop settlement site and two other close-by settlements, all of them encompassing the Early and Middle Bronze Age (19th to 15th century cal. b.c.) and early Iron Age (6th/5th century cal. b.c.). Charred seeds and fruits have provided information on the supply of foodstuff while charcoal (anthracological) analyses of firewood have revealed the use of wood and consequently the changes in local woods. The latter analyses suggest that the spruce-fir woodland (Piceeto-Abietetum) was gradually cleared from the Early Bronze Age. During the Middle Bronze Age large amounts of Pinus sylvestris (pine), Betula (birch), Corylus avellana (hazel) and Sorbus (rowan) with some Picea abies (spruce) characterized the woods, and early succession stages indicate clearings. These anthracological studies are corroborated by pollen studies disclosing clearings in the woods since the Early Bronze Age, which gradually expanded during the Middle Bronze Age. Furthermore, several charcoals from a Middle Bronze Age hearth seem to be of the same age, and the pattern of their annual growth-rings suggests the pollarding of broadleaved trees.     

The variability of critical species ofLotus L. in Iran and in the neighbouring countries I. the circle ofL. corniculatus L. andL. gebelia Vent.

The region of Iran, Iraq, Afghanistan and the neighbouring countries is important for some groups of the speciesLotus L., especially those of the circle ofL. corniculatus L. andL. gebelia Vent. The first group is represented by the speciesL. corniculatus L. with 4 subspecies (3 of which are important for this region), andL. tenuis Waldst. etKit. which here attains the eastern boundary of the continuous area of distribution, and by the eastern speciesL. krylovii Schischk. etSerg. andL. rechingeri Chrtková-?ertová. The second group is represented by the speciesL. gebelia Vent.,L. michauxianus Ser. in DC. andL. libanoticus Boiss. their areas of distribution covering mostly those regions. Most of the species show considerable variability within the species.     

The impact of prehistoric mining activities on the environment: a multidisciplinary study at the fen Schwarzenbergmoos (Brixlegg, Tyrol, Austria)

The exploitation of copper ore deposits of the northern Greywacke Zone was initiated by the implementation of metallurgic technologies in the Eastern Alps thousands of years ago. This multi-proxy study aimed to detect prehistoric mining phases in the vicinity of a prominent copper ore deposit in the Lower Inn Valley. Therefore we studied a peat core from a fen using pollen, micro charcoal and geochemical analyses. In the same fen, an archaeological investigation revealed an ore beneficiation site, well dated by dendrochronological analysis to the Late Bronze Age (9th century b.c.). First hints of mining activities reflected by the occurrence of anthropogenic indicators in the pollen diagram, associated with elevated metal values, at the beginning of the Bronze Age might result from early mineral prospecting and metallurgical experiments around the use of fahlore. The local ore deposit was then abandoned until during the Bronze Age mining activities started to increase. This is reflected by an expansion of the pioneer species Pinus and Larix on mine spoil heaps in the proximity. Concomitantly metal ratios and micro charcoal increase. From about 1000 to 850 b.c. a strong impact of mining activities is displayed in the multi-proxy data. The local forest was partly cleared on and in the vicinity of the fen. According to dendrochronological data the ore beneficiation plant was in use from about 900 to 870 b.c. Until about 700 b.c. another period with moderate impact by mining activities in the further vicinity of the fen shows up.     

Some chromosome numbers of the CzechoslovakLeguminosae

Chromosome numbers of the Czechoslovak species of the genusLotus, from various localities have been determined. The paper includes the speciesLotus uliginosus Schkuhr,L.tenuis Waldst. etKit. andL. borbásii Ujhelyi.     

Glacial relics in the bryoflora of the highlands Českomoravská vrchovina (Bohemian-Moravian Highlands); Their habitat and cenotaxonomic value

The paper sums up the information which the author has so far collected about the habitats and phytocenotic conditions of the glacial relics ofScorpidium scorpioides (Hedw.) Limpr.,Calliergon trifarium (Web. etMohr.)Kindb.,Paludella squarrosa (Hedw.) Brid., andMeesia triquetra (Hook. etTayl.)Aongstr. in the Highlands ?eskomoravská vrchovina (Bohemian-Moravian Highlands) in Czechoslovakia. Simultaneously, it presents a survey of the localities in which the occurrence of these species has been ascertained up to now.     

Late Pleistocene and Holocene palaeoenvironmental changes in central Tierra del Fuego (~54°S) inferred from pollen analysis

A pollen record was obtained from a coring site at La Correntina mire (54°33′S, 66°59′W, 206 m a.s.l.) to the east of Lago Fagnano, centre of Tierra del Fuego. The results indicate that the valley bottom was free of ice shortly before 15,400 cal bp. Pioneer vegetation included dwarf shrub heaths, grasses and herbs with sparsely distributed Nothofagus trees, indicative of dry conditions. Nothofagus expanded by 10,000 cal bp and the forest-steppe ecotone was established by 9,400 cal bp, implying warm conditions and an increase in available moisture. After ca. 5,000 cal bp, the development of a closed-canopy forest is interpreted as the result of wetter and colder conditions. After 3,000 cal bp, Nothofagus forest became more open, and by about 400 cal bp there was a further decline of the forest. A closed-canopy Nothofagus forest re-established after 400 cal bp.     

Über böhmische und türkische Vertreter vonAnetoceras (Ammon., Unterdevon)

The Bohemian speciesAnetoceras solitarius (Barrande 1865) is re-described, including the TurkishA. barrandei (De Verneuil 1866). The other Bohemian species areA. aff.advolvens Erben 1960 and?A. fritschi (Barrande 1877). A new speciesA. recticostatum n. sp. is described from the German Lower Devonian, and several still problematical species of the genus are discussed. Finally, the supposed phylogenetic position and the relations ofAnetoceras are pointed out. The Upper SiegenianA. hunsrueckianum Erben 1960 is regarded as most primitive coiled ammonoid and as connecting link between the bactritids, and early coiled ammonoids.Mimosphinctes Eichenberg is considered to be a descendant fromAnetoceras.     

Understanding the human impact on Akita-sugi cedar (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Cryptomeria japonica</Emphasis>) forest in the late Holocene through pollen analysis of annually laminated sediments from Ichi-no-Megata,Akita, Japan

Akita-sugi (Cryptomeria japonica, Japanese cedar that is grown in Akita) forests are among the most important for commercially valuable timber in Japan. Historically, these forests have been severely exploited, although now some parts of them are conserved. It is important to know the detailed history of the forests in order to utilize them sustainably in the future. This study analyzes the pollen in an annually laminated lake sediment core from Ichi-no-Megata on the Oga peninsula, Akita, Japan, to understand the history of Akita-sugi cedar forests. An age-depth model was developed based on the results of an accelerator mass spectrometer dating of 13 plant macrofossils from the surface to 422 cm in depth, the Towada-a tephra and other well-known event layers. The dominant pollen taxa were Cryptomeria and Fagus crenata by ad 1000. The first increase of Cryptomeria was detected around 1700 bc. By the 1st century ad, Cryptomeria forest was established. At that time, Cryptomeria was mixed with deciduous trees, mainly F. crenata. The pollen analysis found evidence that the main loss of woodland occurred during the 11th century ad, when forest lands were cleared for agriculture. Substantial natural forests nevertheless remained until the 16th century, after which forest resources were exhausted. Conservation and plantation activities took place later, but human activity in response to severe famines prevented the recovery of the forests. After the famine periods, the remaining forests recovered to their previous condition, but after World War II, the natural forests shrank further and plantation forests without deciduous trees were established over large areas.     

Karyo-taxonomic study of the genus<Emphasis Type="Italic">Pseudolysimachion</Emphasis> (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Scrophulariaceae</Emphasis>) in the Czech Republic and Slovakia

Flow cytometry was used to determine ploidy levels in the Czech and Slovak taxa of the genusPseudolysimachion (W.D.J. Koch)Opiz (=Veronica auct. p.p.,Scrophulariaceae). In total, 123 populations from the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Ukraine (one locality), Austria (one locality) and Hungary (one locality) were analyzed. InP. maritimum (L.)Á. Löve etD. Löve andP. spicatum (L.)Opiz, two cytotypes were found: diploid (2n=2x=34) and tetraploid (2n=4x=68). In both species the tetraploid cytotype predominated (P. maritimum: 41 tetraploid populations out of 45;P. spicatum: 57 tetraploid populations out of 58). The two cytotypes ofP. maritimum have no taxonomic significance because ploidy level is not obviously correlated with morphology, distribution pattern or ecology. Tetraploid populations ofP. spicatum belong to two morphologically different subspecies, subsp.spicatum and subsp.fischeri Trávní?ek. The diploid cytotype (one population only) should be provisionally classified as a third subspecies ofP. spicatum, which is morphologically similar to the Asian subsp.porphyrianum (Pavlov)Trávní?ek. Only diploid plants (2n=2x=34) ofP. orchideum (Crantz)Wraber were found; all 13 populations that were analyzed belong toP. orchideum s.str. One diploid population sample ofP. spurium subsp.foliosum (Waldst. etKit.)Holub (2n=2x=34) and one tetraploid sample ofP. incanum subsp.pallens (Host)Trávní?ek (2n=4x=68) were also analyzed. In addition, three tetraploid populations of hybrid origin were investigated:P. maritimum ×P. spicatum subsp.spicatum (one population) andP. maritimum ×P. spurium subsp.foliosum (two populations). While hybrid plants ofP. maritimum ×P. spicatum arose from tetraploid parental species, plants ofP. maritimum ×P. spurium probably resulted from a cross between tetraploidP. maritimum and diploidP. spurium. The putative origin and evolutionary importance of polyploids in thePseudolysimachion are discussed.