Impact of the Darkling Beetle Alphitobius diaperinus (Panzer) on Establishment of the Predaceous Beetle Carcinops pumilio (Erichson) for Musca domestica Control in Caged-Layer Poultry Houses

Understanding the insect natural history in a caged-layer poultry house is essential to developing Integrated Pest Management strategies. In this study we observed the interaction of three insects commonly found in poultry manure: a filth fly predator, Carcinops pumilio (Erichson) (Histeridae), and two poultry pests, the house fly, Musca domestica L. (Muscidae), and the darkling beetle, Alphitobius diaperinus (Panzer) (Tenebrionidae). Manure samples were collected weekly and the insects were extracted using Berlese–Tullgren funnels. Collected insects were identified to species and life stage. When C. pumilio populations equaled or exceeded those of the larval house fly, subsequent adult house fly populations were not considered pestiferous. C. pumilio adult and larval cohorts varied significantly among poultry houses. Few C. pumilio larvae were found in houses with abundant darkling beetle populations, suggesting a negative impact on the establishment of C. pumilio. Laboratory studies confirmed that larval darkling beetles significantly reduce the survival of C. pumilio eggs and larvae. Adult darkling beetles did not reduce C. pumilio egg or larval survival.     

Killing of Flies in Electrocuting Insect Traps Releases Bacteria and Viruses

Electrocuting insect traps (EIT) are popular devices frequently used by homeowners and food handlers attempting to localize the control of flying insects, including the ubiquitous house fly (Musca domestica L.). The traps contain a visual attractant and a high-voltage metal grid. Upon contact with the grids, the insects are disintegrated by the high voltage. As part of a systematic evaluation of EITs and their role in infectious disease spread, we quantitated spread of bacteria and a bacterial virus during electrocution of house flies. We loaded flies with Serratia marcescens or with the Escherichia coli phage ΦX174 and placed sprayed or fed flies into a room containing an EIT. While flies were being electrocuted, liberated particles and bacteria were assayed via agar plates or via air filtration samplers. Sprayed flies released one of every 10,000 of the added bacteria or viruses, and fed flies released one of every 1,000,000 of the consumed bacteria or viruses. Results of our studies suggest EITs could play a role in the spread of infectious disease agents, but the potential is influenced by the insect's route of contamination. Received: 26 February 2000 / Accepted: 2 May 2000     

SEXUAL SELECTION,VIABILITY SELECTION,AND DEVELOPMENTAL STABILITY IN THE DOMESTIC FLY MUSCA DOMESTICA

Associations between developmental stability, sexual selection, and viability selection were studied in the domestic fly Musca domestica (Diptera, Muscidae). Developmental stability of the wings and tibia of flies of both sexes, measured in terms of their level of fluctuating asymmetry, was positively associated with mating success in free ranging populations and in sexual selection experiments. Mated individuals may have obtained indirect fitness benefits from sexual selection of two different kinds. First, the entomopathogenic fungus Enthomophthora muscae (Zygomycetes, Entomophthorales) infects and kills adult domestic flies, and flies dead from fungus infections had more asymmetric wings than flies dead for other reasons. Experimental deposition of fungus spores on uninfected flies demonstrated that flies with asymmetric wings were more susceptible to fungus infections than flies with symmetric wings. Second, domestic flies were frequently eaten by insectivorous barn swallows Hirundo rustica, and flies depredated by birds had more asymmetric wings and tibia than surviving flies.     

Juvenile hormone activity of substituted aryl 3,7-dimethyl-6-octenyl ethers in the stable fly and house fly

Tests of substituted aryl 3,7-dimethyl-6-octenyl ethers and their epoxidized analogues produced a juvenile hormone (JH) mimic that was active against both the stable fly, Stomoxys calcitrans, and the house fly, Musca domestica. The criterion of activity in the JH bioassays was the formation of pupal-adult intermediates within the puparia.     

Sensitivity of Acetylcholinesterases from Aphelenchus avenae to Organophosphorous and Carbamate Pesticides

The sensitivities of acetylcholinesterases (ACHE) from the nematode Aphelenchus avenae and the house fly Musca domestica to various pesticides were compared using a colorimetric assay. ACHE from A. avenae were generally less sensitive than ACHE from M. domestica to inhibition by organophosphorous and carbamate pesticides. Carbamates were somewhat more inhibiting than organophosphorous pesticides to nematode ACHE. In vivo tests with concentrations of various pesticides up to 500 ppm in sand caused less than 100% mortality of nematodes.     

Age of three dipteran hosts as a factor governing the pathogenicity of Beauveria bassiana and Metarrhizium anisopliae

The age of three adult dipteran hosts was tested as a factor governing the virulence of two fungal pathogens. The subjects tested were 1-, 5-, 10-, 15-, 20-, 25-, and 30-day-old animals. The age of the house fly, Musca domestica, the age of the black blowfly, Phormia regina, and the age of the onion fly, Hylemya antiqua, do not significantly affect the virulence of either Beauveria bassiana or Metarrhizium anisopliae. B. bassiana kills M. domestica and P. regina more quickly than does M. anisopliae, but B. bassiana and M. anisopliae kill H. antiqua at the same rate. The ages of all three flies had no significant effect on average death time after inoculation with either pathogen.     

Metabolic regulation of two types of phenol oxidase activity in ontogenesis of house fly

Changes of the tyrosinase activity in ontogenesis of the house fly Musca domestica were shown to be phase-specific and ontogenetic changes of tyrosinase and dihydroxyphenylalanine oxidase activities proved to be coordinated. Ascorbic acid stimulated some ontogenetic stages of the house fly and physiological indices, such as fertility, survival at different stages, and weight of puparia. Also, ascorbic acid modulated the tyrosinase activity.     

Polyamine changes during insect development: A comparison between the housefly Musca domestica and the plant bug Dysdercus koenigii

Polyamine levels were measured during the entire life cycle of a dipteran insect, Musca domestica and a hemipteran insect, Dysdercus koenigii. Putrescine, spermidine and spermine were found to be present at all stages of development in both the insects. A comparison of the polyamine changes in the two insects showed that spermidine is an important polyamine in insect development. Spermidine levels were very high in developing embryos of M. domestica before hatching of the egg. These spermidine levels decreased rapidly from first instar. On the contrary, in D. koenigii, spermidine levels were low in early development, started increasing in first instar and high levels were maintained from second to fifth instar nymphal stages. High levels of spermidine is probably indicative of rapid cell division in the above two groups of insects.     

House fly larvae meal grown on municipal organic waste as a source of protein in poultry diets

House fly larvae (Musca domestica L.) grown in the residues of municipal organic waste were evaluated as a protein concentrate in practical diets for poultry. Seventy-two broiler-type chicks were alloted within 12 groups. Quadruplicate groups each received the following dietary treatments: a control diet containing soya bean meal alone, or two diets in which either 12% of the supplementary protein was provided by fly larvae meal or 9% by fish meal. The chicks were fed during the first four weeks of life with isocaloric and isoproteic diets and the results showed no significant differences in body weight gain (P > 0.05) or food conversion efficiency (P > 0.05), the larvae meal diet being intermediate to the other two.     

Two-sex life table of Nasonia vitripennis (Hymenoptera: Pteromalidae) and the effects of Wolbachia on its reproduction and parasitism of Musca domestica (Diptera: Muscidae)

Nasonia vitripennis (Walker) (Hymenoptera: Pteromalidae) is now emerging as genetic model organism for development and genetics research. As a parasitic insect, the egg, larval, pupal, and early adult developmental stages of N. vitripennis occur within the enclosed fly pupae, which differ a lot from the life cycle of other insects that undergo complete metamorphosis. Previous report on the life table of N. vitripennis was based on females only. In this study, the two-sex life table approach was used to examine the parasitic efficiency of N. vitripennis within the pupae of Musca domestica L. (Diptera: Muscidae), and the influence of low temperature and the endosymbiotic bacteria Wolbachia on wasp population growth were investigated. Wolbachia could improve the fecundity of N. vitripennis and prolong the host life history. We propose the preservation of M. domestica pupae at 4 °C for 15 days is suitable in practical use. Age-stage, two-sex life table analysis revealed the stage structure and variability of N. vitripennis population growth, and also provide useful information about the effects of Wolbachia on its reproduction and parasitism of M. domestica.     

Effects of zinc on programmed cell death of Musca domestica and Drosophila melanogaster blood cells

Programmed cell death (PCD) and phagocytotic activity of immune cells play a pivotal role in insect development. We examined the influence of Zn²⁺, an important element to fundamental biological processes, on phagocytosis and apoptosis of hemocytes in two fly species: Musca domestica and Drosophila melanogaster. Hemocytes were isolated from the third instar larvae of both species and treated for 3 h with zinc chloride solutions, containing 0.35 mM or 1.7 mM of Zn²⁺, and untreated as control. Phagocytotic activity of hemocytes was examined by flow cytometry after adding latex fluorescent beads to the medium, while apoptosis was evaluated by application of annexinV-FITC and pan-caspase-FITC inhibitor. Mitochondrial viability was determined by measuring resazurin absorbancy in the cell medium. The obtained results showed that Zn²⁺ increases phagocytosis and affects PCD of both species hemocytes but each in a different way. Zinc decreases fraction of annexin-positive hemocytes in M. domestica but increases it in D. melanogaster. The pan-caspase analysis revealed low and high activity of caspases in hemocytes of M. domestica and D. melanogaster, respectively. Zn²⁺ also decreased the viability of hemocyte mitochondria but only in D. melanogaster. It suggests that flies use different pathways of PCD, or that Zn plays a different role in this process in M. domestica than in D. melanogaster.     

Characterization of Bacillus anthracis Persistence In Vivo

Pulmonary exposure to Bacillus anthracis spores initiates inhalational anthrax, a life-threatening infection. It is known that dormant spores can be recovered from the lungs of infected animals months after the initial spore exposure. Consequently, a 60-day course antibiotic treatment is recommended for exposed individuals. However, there has been little information regarding details or mechanisms of spore persistence in vivo. In this study, we investigated spore persistence in a mouse model. The results indicated that weeks after intranasal inoculation with B. anthracis spores, substantial amounts of spores could be recovered from the mouse lung. Moreover, spores of B. anthracis were significantly better at persisting in the lung than spores of a non-pathogenic Bacillus subtilis strain. The majority of B. anthracis spores in the lung were tightly associated with the lung tissue, as they could not be readily removed by lavage. Immunofluorescence staining of lung sections showed that spores associated with the alveolar and airway epithelium. Confocal analysis indicated that some of the spores were inside epithelial cells. This was further confirmed by differential immunofluorescence staining of lung cells harvested from the infected lungs, suggesting that association with lung epithelial cells may provide an advantage to spore persistence in the lung. There was no or very mild inflammation in the infected lungs. Furthermore, spores were present in the lung tissue as single spores rather than in clusters. We also showed that the anthrax toxins did not play a role in persistence. Together, the results suggest that B. anthracis spores have special properties that promote their persistence in the lung, and that there may be multiple mechanisms contributing to spore persistence.     

Fermentation media and production of exotoxin by three varieties of Bacillus thuringiensis

The insecticidal activities of the exotoxin produced by three varieties of Bacillus thuringiensis grown in six fermentation media were determined by testing the supernatants against larvae of the house fly, Musca domestica, and the black cutworm, Agrotis ipsilon. The activities of the exotoxins from the isolates varied when they were grown in the same medium and also when they were grown in different media. When an isolate of B. thuringiensis var. thuringiensis, and of var. tolworthi were grown in proflo broth, the supernatants produced were more toxic to house fly than to black cutworm larvae, indicating the presence of more than one exotoxin. Autoclaving the supernatants for 15 and 30 min further demonstrated the presence of several exotoxins.     

Convergent evolution of diverse Bacillus anthracis outbreak strains toward altered surface oligosaccharides that modulate anthrax pathogenesis

Bacillus anthracis, a spore-forming gram-positive bacterium, causes anthrax. The external surface of the exosporium is coated with glycosylated proteins. The sugar additions are capped with the unique monosaccharide anthrose. The West African Group (WAG) B. anthracis have mutations rendering them anthrose deficient. Through genome sequencing, we identified 2 different large chromosomal deletions within the anthrose biosynthetic operon of B. anthracis strains from Chile and Poland. In silico analysis identified an anthrose-deficient strain in the anthrax outbreak among European heroin users. Anthrose-deficient strains are no longer restricted to West Africa so the role of anthrose in physiology and pathogenesis was investigated in B. anthracis Sterne. Loss of anthrose delayed spore germination and enhanced sporulation. Spores without anthrose were phagocytized at higher rates than spores with anthrose, indicating that anthrose may serve an antiphagocytic function on the spore surface. The anthrose mutant had half the LD₅₀ and decreased time to death (TTD) of wild type and complement B. anthracis Sterne in the A/J mouse model. Following infection, anthrose mutant bacteria were more abundant in the spleen, indicating enhanced dissemination of Sterne anthrose mutant. At low sample sizes in the A/J mouse model, the mortality of ΔantC-infected mice challenged by intranasal or subcutaneous routes was 20% greater than wild type. Competitive index (CI) studies indicated that spores without anthrose disseminated to organs more extensively than a complemented mutant. Death process modeling using mouse mortality dynamics suggested that larger sample sizes would lead to significantly higher deaths in anthrose-negative infected animals. The model was tested by infecting Galleria mellonella with spores and confirmed the anthrose mutant was significantly more lethal. Vaccination studies in the A/J mouse model showed that the human vaccine protected against high-dose challenges of the nonencapsulated Sterne-based anthrose mutant. This work begins to identify the physiologic and pathogenic consequences of convergent anthrose mutations in B. anthracis.

A study of the spontaneous loss of the spore coat monosaccharide anthrose suggests that convergent evolution in several anthrax strains towards increased pathogenicity could exacerbate global human and animal anthrax disease.     

Culture of Entomophthora muscae in vivo and its infectivity for six species of muscoid flies

A method for the continuous culture of Entomophthora muscae (Entomophthoraceae) in adult house flies (Musca domestica) is described. Using this method we have maintained the host-pathogen system in the laboratory for more than one year. The ability of this isolate to cause fatal infections in virtually all of the house flies at risk has remained constant. The face fly (Musca autumnalis), the onion fly (Hylemya antiqua), and the seed-corn fly (H. platura) are susceptible to this isolate. The stable fly (Stomoxys calcitrans), the black blow fly (Phormia regina), and the false stable fly (Muscina stabulans) are not.     

Growth of Musca domestica (Diptera: Muscidae) and Sarcophaga dux (Diptera: Sarcophagidae) larvae in poultry and livestock manures: Implication for animal waste management

Natural diets commonly exploited by the flies are animal manures including production from the poultry and livestock facilities. The larvae of the common filth flies such as Musca domestica and Sarcophaga dux are known as voracious feeders and may thus be used to convert manures into non-polluted residue. This study was conducted to observe the impact on flies' growth rate and capability of the larvae to process animal manures using chicken, goat and cow manures. One hundred newly hatched larvae of M. domestica and S. dux were introduced separately into 150?g manures under laboratory conditions. The initial wet mass and larvae length were recorded while mortality rate and dry mass were measured after the larvae were placed into the manures. The results showed that the manure types give significant effects (p?<?.05) on the growth of M. domestica and S. dux larvae. Cow manures and chicken manures contributed the highest growth for M. domestica and S. dux respectively. This result confirmed by the mean increment in wet mass and larvae length. In contrast, M. domestica greatly reduced 59.9?±?4% chicken manures while 25.0?±?1.8% goat manures reduced by S. dux. The potential of M. domestica and S. dux larvae to reduce animal waste products were further discussed in this study.     

Local search in the housefly Musca domestica after feeding on sucrose

Local search behaviour of the housefly, Musca domestica, released by ingestion of sucrose, was recorded on a bitpad digitizer. Local search is characterized by an initial increase in turning rate and a decrease in locomotory rate followed by an exponential return to control (unfed) levels for both functions. Greater variation in the slope of the exponential return to control levels was observed between runs of different flies than between runs of an individual fly, suggesting a possible internal basis for locomotory and turning functions. The local search pattern, based on decrease in relative turning rate generates a spiral configuration. A zig-zag component increases path width and increases the chances of a fly relocating the drop residue. Looping patterns correlate with successive recontacts with the drop residue and associated changes in turn direction and stopping. The results are discussed with respect to sources of internal and external orientation information controlling local search.     

Musculature of the Male Abdominal Segments and Terminalia in <Emphasis Type="Italic">Musca autumnalis</Emphasis> De Geer, 1776 and <Emphasis Type="Italic">Pyrellia rapax</Emphasis> (Harris, 1780) (Diptera,Muscidae: Muscini)

The structure of the abdominal and pregenital segments and genitalia of males was studied in Pyrellia rapax (Harris, 1780) and Musca autumnalis De Geer, 1776 (Muscidae, Muscini). The musculature of these species is compared with that in Musca domestica Linnaeus, 1758 (Muscidae) and Scathophaga stercoraria (Linnaeus, 1758) (Scathophagidae), previously investigated by O.G. Ovtshinnikova. Morphological analysis of sclerites and muscles of abdominal and pregenital segments and genitalia of males in Pyrellia rapax, Musca autumnalis, and M. domestica demonstrates processes of reduction in Musca as compared with P. rapax and S. stercoraria.     

Close apposition of photoreceptor cell axons in the house fly

Transmission electron microscopy of the first optic ganglion of the house fly Musca domestica reveals that retinular (R) axons branch and interdigitate throughout the external plexiform layer. Axonal membranes of neighboring cells are in close apposition to each other, usually without junctional modifications. In some cases R axonal membranes exhibit greater electron density in the areas of contiguity. Adjacent axons may show a near confluency of axoplasm at points where membrane boundaries are interrupted or obscured. Physiological implications of these ultrastructural findings are discussed.