猪髓样分化因子MyD88特异性shRNA干扰载体的构建筛选及干扰效果评价

髓样分化因子My D88(myeloid differentiation factor 88)信号通路是一个具有多种调节功能的传导通路,在免疫反应、炎症反应及肿瘤的发生和发展过程中均发挥重要作用。构建猪(Sus scrofa)My D88基因的shRNA干扰载体,并在转录水平和蛋白质表达水平对其干扰效果进行验证,以筛选出干扰效果最优的干扰载体。根据猪My D88基因(Gen Bank登录号:KC766424.1)全长c DNA序列,利用Invitrogen公司在线设计软件设计出4对shRNA干扰序列,退火成双链后,分别将其插入到p Yr-1.1载体中,构建My D88基因的shRNA真核表达载体p Yr-1.1-pig My D88-sh1、p Yr-1.1-pig My D88-sh2、p Yr-1.1-pig My D88-sh3、p Yr-1.1-pig My D88-sh4,并通过双酶切和测序对其进行鉴定。构建成功后转染猪肺泡巨噬细胞3D4/2,通过Real-time PCR及Western blot验证My D88基因的表达水平,以及对LPS刺激后炎症因子TNF-α基因表达水平的影响。结果表明,所构建的猪My D88基因的特异性shRNA表达载体均可显著降低猪My D88 mRNA和蛋白质的表达水平(P0.05),干扰效率分别达到36%、67%、60%、69%;相比于未干扰组,LPS刺激My D88沉默之后的巨噬细胞,炎症因子TNF-α基因表达水平显著下降(P0.05),表明所构建猪My D88干扰载体干扰效果较好。     

Identification and Function of Myeloid Differentiation Factor 88 (MyD88) in Litopenaeus vannamei

Myeloid differentiation factor 88 (MyD88) is a universal and essential signaling protein in Toll-like receptor/interleukin-1 receptor-induced activation of nuclear factor-kappa B. In this study, two MyD88 protein variants (LvMyD88 and LvMyD88-1) were identified in Litopenaeus vannamei. The LvMyD88 cDNA is 1,848 bp in length and contains an open reading frame (ORF) of 1,428 bp, whereas the LvMyD88-1 cDNA is 1,719 bp in length and has an ORF of 1,299 bp. Both variants encode proteins with death and Toll/interleukin-1 receptor domains and share 91% sequence identity. In healthy L. vannamei, the LvMyD88 genes were highly expressed in hemocytes but at a low level in the hepatopancreas. The LvMyD88s expression was induced in hemocytes after challenge with lipopolysaccharide, CpG-ODN2006, Vibrio parahaemolyticus, Staphyloccocus aureus, and white spot syndrome virus, but not by poly I∶C. Overexpression of LvMyD88 and LvMyD88-1 in Drosophila Schneider 2 cells led to activation of antimicrobial peptide genes and wsv069 (ie1), wsv303, and wsv371. These results suggested that LvMyD88 may play a role in antibacterial and antiviral response in L. vannamei. To our knowledge, this is the first report on MyD88 in shrimp and a variant of MyD88 gene in invertebrates.     

Mutational Analysis Identifies Residues Crucial for Homodimerization of Myeloid Differentiation Factor 88 (MyD88) and for Its Function in Immune Cells

Myeloid differentiation factor 88 (MyD88) is an adaptor protein that transduces intracellular signaling pathways evoked by the Toll-like receptors (TLRs) and interleukin-1 receptors (IL-1Rs). MyD88 is composed of an N-terminal death domain (DD) and a C-terminal Toll/IL-1 receptor (TIR) domain, separated by a short region. Upon ligand binding, TLR/IL-1Rs hetero- or homodimerize and recruit MyD88 through their respective TIR domains. Then, MyD88 oligomerizes via its DD and TIR domain and interacts with the interleukin-1 receptor-associated kinases (IRAKs) to form the Myddosome complex. We performed site-directed mutagenesis of conserved residues that are located in exposed regions of the MyD88-TIR domain and analyzed the effect of the mutations on MyD88 signaling. Our studies revealed that mutation of Glu¹⁸³, Ser²⁴⁴, and Arg²⁸⁸ impaired homodimerization of the MyD88-TIR domain, recruitment of IRAKs, and activation of NF-κB. Moreover, overexpression of two green fluorescent protein (GFP)-tagged MyD88 mini-proteins (GFP-MyD88_151–189 and GFP-MyD88_168–189), comprising the Glu¹⁸³ residue, recapitulated these effects. Importantly, expression of these dominant negative MyD88 mini-proteins competed with the function of endogenous MyD88 and interfered with TLR2/4-mediated responses in a human monocytic cell line (THP-1) and in human primary monocyte-derived dendritic cells. Thus, our studies identify novel residues of the TIR domain that are crucially involved in MyD88 homodimerization and TLR signaling in immune cells.     

Abdominal Distension and Escherichia coli Peritonitis in Mice Lacking Myeloid Differentiation Factor 88

Here we describe the gross and microscopic findings of naturally occurring, β-hemolytic Escherichia coli peritonitis in B6.129-Myd88^tm1Aki male and female mice. Over approximately 5 mo, 10 homozygous mutant mice deficient in myeloid differentiation factor 88 (C57BL/6 strain; male and female) that had not been used in research protocols developed rapid-onset abdominal swelling associated with copious viscous ascites. Each mouse developed an anterior peritonitis, primarily involving the parietal peritoneum and the visceral surface of the spleen, liver, diaphragm, and stomach. Inflammation was confined to the organ surfaces, with no indication of septicemia or grossly apparent gastrointestinal perforation or other tissue compromise that would initiate peritonitis. Peritonitis was likely attributable to compromised antibacterial innate immunity; cohoused, similarly immunodeficient littermates did not develop similar clinical signs. An unusual finding in all cases was mesothelial cell hyperplasia and hypertrophy. Although the underlying innate immune deficiency accounts for much of the observed pathology, the remarkable mesothelial cell morphology and the episodic nature of the peritonitis in some littermates and not others remain unexplained.Abbreviations: MyD88, myeloid differentiation response 88; TLR, Toll-like receptorMice deficient in myeloid differentiation factor 88 (myD88) are commonly studied in immunologic research as models of various diseases, including inflammatory bowel disease and diabetes.^2,3 MyD88 is a key signal transduction molecule for most of the Toll-like receptors (TLR) and IL1 family receptors, initiating cytokine release essential for effective innate immunity.¹⁸ The loss of this adapter protein impairs production of IL1, IL6, IL18, macrophage inhibitory proteins 1 and 2, and various chemokines.^1,12,14 Knockout mutant mice are especially susceptible to gram-negative bacteria, because TLR4, which triggers signaling through MyD88, mediates responses to LPS.^7,17 These immunologic mutants are common in research animal colonies, but their development of clinical signs and lesions consistent with Escherichia coli peritonitis, which arose at different times and affected only some of the immunodeficient mice, was previously unknown.     

奥利亚罗非鱼髓样分化因子(MyD88)的克隆及其在组织中的表达

髓样分化因子（myeloid differentiation factor 88,MyD88）是TLR（toll-like receptor）信号通路的关键接头蛋白,在先天性免疫中具有重要作用。通过RACE-RCR技术克隆了奥利亚罗非鱼（Oreochromis aureus）MyD88基因cDNA全长序列（GenBank登录号：JN032017）。序列分析表明,奥利亚罗非鱼MyD88 基因全长为1 611 bp,其中包括155 bp的5’非编码区,589 bp的3’非编码区和867 bp的编码区,编码288个氨基酸残基。MyD88蛋白N端具有死亡结构域,C端具有TIR结构域。同源性分析表明,奥利亚罗非鱼MyD88氨基酸序列与鳜鱼（Siniperca chuats）相似性最高,为85.8%,与其他鱼类相似性为70%~82%,与哺乳动物相似性为63%~66%;系统进化树分析表明,奥利亚罗非鱼MyD88与同属鲈形目的鳜鱼、大黄鱼（Larimichthys crocea）聚在一起。采用实时定量PCR方法检测MyD88在奥利亚罗非鱼各组织中的表达情况。结果显示,MyD88在所有被测组织中都有表达,其中表达量最高的是卵巢,其次在小肠、脾、肝、肾、鳃和血液中有较高的表达量,肌肉、精巢组织中表达量最低。本研究可为进一步探讨MyD88在奥利亚罗非鱼TLR信号通路中的作用奠定一定的基础。     

Ischemia-Reperfusion Lung Injury Is Attenuated in MyD88-Deficient Mice

Ischemia-reperfusion lung injury is a common cause of acute morbidity and mortality in lung transplant recipients and has been associated with subsequent development of bronchiolitis obliterans syndrome. Recognition of endogenous ligands released during cellular injury (damage-associated molecular patterns; DAMPs) by Toll-like receptors (TLRs), especially TLR4, has increasingly been recognized as a mechanism for inflammation resulting from tissue damage. TLR4 is implicated in the pathogenesis of ischemia-reperfusion injury of multiple organs including heart, liver, kidney and lung. Additionally, activation of TLRs other than TLR4 by DAMPs has been identified in tissues other than the lung. Because all known TLRs, with the exception of TLR3, signal via the MyD88 adapter protein, we hypothesized that lung ischemia-reperfusion injury was mediated by MyD88-dependent signaling. To test this hypothesis, we subjected C57BL/6 wildtype, Myd88 ^-/-, and Tlr4 ^-/- mice to 1 hr of left lung warm ischemia followed by 4 hr of reperfusion. We found that Myd88 ^-/- mice had significantly less MCP-1/CCL2 in the left lung following ischemia-reperfusion as compared with wildtype mice. This difference was associated with dramatically reduced lung permeability. Interestingly, Tlr4 ^-/- mice had only partial protection from ischemia-reperfusion as compared to Myd88 ^-/- mice, implicating other MyD88-dependent pathways in lung injury following ischemia-reperfusion. We also found that left lung ischemia-reperfusion caused remote inflammation in the right lung. Finally, using chimeric mice with MyD88 expression restricted to either myeloid or non-myeloid cells, we found that MyD88-dependent signaling in myeloid cells was necessary for ischemia-reperfusion induced lung permeability. We conclude that MyD88-dependent signaling through multiple receptors is important in the pathogenesis of acute lung inflammation and injury following ischemia and reperfusion.     

MyD88-Dependent Pathways in Leukocytes Affect the Retina in Diabetes

Background

Previous studies by us and other have provided evidence that leukocytes play a critical role in the development of diabetic retinopathy, suggesting a possible role of the innate immune system in development of the retinopathy. Since MyD88 is a convergence point for signaling pathways of the innate immune system (including Toll-Like Receptors (TLRs) and interleukin-1ß (IL-1ß)), the purpose of this study was to assess the role of MyD88 and its dependent pathways on abnormalities that develop in retina and white blood cells related to diabetic retinopathy.

Methods

C57BL/6J mice were made diabetic with streptozotocin. Chimeric mice were generated in which MyD88-dependent pathways were deleted from bone marrow-derived only. Mice were sacrificed at 2 mos of diabetes for assessment of, leukostasis, albumin accumulation in neural retina, leukocyte-mediated killing of retinal endothelial cells, and cytokine/chemokine generation by retinas of diabetic mice in response to TLR agonists,

Results

IL-6 and CXCL1 were generated in retinas from diabetic (but not nondiabetic mice) following incubation with Pam3CysK/TLR2, but incubation with other TLR ligands or IL-1ß did not induce cytokine production in retinas from nondiabetic or diabetic mice. Diabetes-induced abnormalities (leukostasis, ICAM-1 expression on the luminal surface of the vascular endothelium, retinal superoxide generation) were significantly inhibited by removing either MyD88 or the signaling pathways regulated by it (TLRs 2 and 4, and IL-1ß) from bone marrow-derived cells only. Leukocyte-mediated killing of endothelial cells tended to be decreased in the marrow-derived cells lacking TLR2/4, but the killing was significantly exacerbated if the marrow cells lacked MyD88 or the receptor for IL-1ß (IL-1ßr).

Conclusions

MyD88-dependent pathways play an important role in the development of diabetes-induced inflammation in the retina, and inhibition of MyD88 might be a novel target to inhibit early abnormalities of diabetic retinopathy and other complications of diabetes.     

Myeloid differentiation factor 88 (MyD88) is required for murine resistance to Candida albicans and is critically involved in Candida -induced production of cytokines

We have studied the role of myeloid differentiation factor 88 (MyD88), the universal Toll-like receptor (TLR) adaptor protein, in murine defenses against Candida albicans. MyD88-deficient mice, experimentally infected in vivo, had a very significant impaired survival, and a higher tissue fungal burden when compared with control mice. The recruitment of neutrophils to the site of infection was also significantly diminished in MyD88-\- mice. In vitro production of proinflammatory cytokines such as TNF-alpha, IFN-gamma and IL-12p70, by antigen-stimulated splenocytes from mice intravenously infected with the low-virulence C. albicans PCA2 strain, could not be detected in MyD88-\- mice. This default of production of Th1 cytokines in MyD88-deficient mice correlated with a greatly diminished frequency of IFN-gamma-producing CD4 + T lymphocytes. Also, the frequency of IFN-gamma-producing CD8 + T lymphocytes was lower in MyD88-\- mice than in control mice. Although C. albicans-specific antibody titers in PCA2-infected mice appeared more quickly in MyD88-\- mice than in control mice, the MyD88-\- group was not able to maintain the Candida-specific IgM nor IgG titers at the third week of infection. The complexity of antigens recognized by sera from MyD88-\- mice was quite similar to that from infected control mice. Taken together, these data show that MyD88-\- mice are extremely susceptible to C. albicans infections, suggesting that MyD88-dependent signaling pathways are essential for both the innate and adaptive immune responses to C. albicans.     

Myeloid differentiation factor-88 (MyD88) is essential for control of primary in vivo Francisella tularensis LVS infection, but not for control of intra-macrophage bacterial replication

The means by which Francisella tularensis, the causative agent of tularemia, are recognized by mammalian immune systems are poorly understood. Here we wished to explore the contribution of the MyD88/Toll-like receptor signaling pathway in initiating murine responses to F. tularensis Live Vaccine Strain (LVS). MyD88 knockout (KO) mice, but not TLR2-, TLR4- or TLR9-deficient mice, rapidly succumbed following in vivo bacterial infection via the intradermal route even with a very low dose of LVS (5 x 10(1)) that was 100,000-fold less than the LD(50) of normal wild-type (WT) mice. By day 5 after LVS infection, bacterial organ burdens were 5-6 logs higher in MyD88 knockout mice; further, unlike infected WT mice, levels of interferon-gamma in the sera of LVS-infected MyD88 KO were undetectable. An in vitro culture system was used to assess the ability of bone marrow macrophages derived from either KO or WT mice to support bacterial growth, or to control intracellular bacterial replication when co-cultured with immune lymphocytes. In this assay, bacterial replication was similar in macrophages derived from either WT or any of the TLR KO mice. Bacterial growth was controlled in co-cultures containing macrophages from MyD88 KO mice or TLR KO mice as well as in co-cultures containing immune WT splenic lymphocytes and WT macrophages. Further, MyD88-deficient LVS-immune splenocytes controlled intracellular growth comparably to those from normal mice. Thus MyD88 is essential for innate host resistance to LVS infection, but is not required for macrophage control of intracellular bacterial growth.     

Nucleoredoxin Negatively Regulates Toll-like Receptor 4 Signaling via Recruitment of Flightless-I to Myeloid Differentiation Primary Response Gene (88)

We previously characterized nucleoredoxin (NRX) as a negative regulator of the Wnt signaling pathway through Dishevelled (Dvl). We perform a comprehensive search for other NRX-interacting proteins and identify Flightless-I (Fli-I) as a novel NRX-binding partner. Fli-I binds to NRX and other related proteins, such as Rod-derived cone viability factor (RdCVF), whereas Dvl binds only to NRX. Endogenous NRX and Fli-I in vivo interactions are confirmed. Both NRX and RdCVF link Fli-I with myeloid differentiation primary response gene (88) (MyD88), an important adaptor protein for innate immune response. NRX and RdCVF also potentiate the negative effect of Fli-I upon lipopolysaccharide-induced activation of NF-κB through the Toll-like receptor 4/MyD88 pathway. Embryonic fibroblasts derived from NRX gene-targeted mice show aberrant NF-κB activation upon lipopolysaccharide stimulation. These results suggest that the NRX subfamily of proteins forms a link between MyD88 and Fli-I to mediate negative regulation of the Toll-like receptor 4/MyD88 pathway.     

The Polysaccharide Capsule of Streptococcus pneumonia Partially Impedes MyD88-Mediated Immunity during Pneumonia in Mice

Toll-like receptors (TLR) and the downstream adaptor protein MyD88 are considered crucial for protective immunity during bacterial infections. Streptococcus (S.) pneumoniae is a human respiratory pathogen and a large majority of clinical pneumococcal isolates expresses an external polysaccharide capsule. We here sought to determine the role of pneumococcal capsule in MyD88-mediated antibacterial defense during S. pneumonia pneumonia. Wild type (WT) and Myd88^-/- mice were inoculated intranasally with serotype 2 S. pneumoniae D39 or with an isogenic capsule locus deletion mutant (D39∆cps), and analysed for bacterial outgrowth and inflammatory responses in the lung. As compared to WT mice, Myd88^-/- mice infected with D39 demonstrated a modestly impaired bacterial clearance accompanied by decreased inflammatory responses in the lung. Strikingly, while WT mice rapidly cleared D39∆cps, Myd88^-/- mice showed 10⁵-fold higher bacterial burdens in their lungs and dissemination to blood 24 hours after infection. These data suggest that the pneumococcal capsule impairs recognition of TLR ligands expressed by S. pneumoniae and thereby partially impedes MyD88-mediated antibacterial defense.     

Development of Fatal Intestinal Inflammation in MyD88 Deficient Mice Co-infected with Helminth and Bacterial Enteropathogens

Infections with intestinal helminth and bacterial pathogens, such as enteropathogenic Escherichia coli, continue to be a major global health threat for children. To determine whether and how an intestinal helminth parasite, Heligomosomoides polygyrus, might impact the TLR signaling pathway during the response to a bacterial enteropathogen, MyD88 knockout and wild-type C57BL/6 mice were infected with H. polygyrus, the bacterial enteropathogen Citrobacter rodentium, or both. We found that MyD88 knockout mice co-infected with H. polygyrus and C. rodentium developed more severe intestinal inflammation and elevated mortality compared to the wild-type mice. The enhanced susceptibility to C. rodentium, intestinal injury and mortality of the co-infected MyD88 knockout mice were found to be associated with markedly reduced intestinal phagocyte recruitment, decreased expression of the chemoattractant KC, and a significant increase in bacterial translocation. Moreover, the increase in bacterial infection and disease severity were found to be correlated with a significant downregulation of antimicrobial peptide expression in the intestinal tissue in co-infected MyD88 knockout mice. Our results suggest that the MyD88 signaling pathway plays a critical role for host defense and survival during helminth and enteric bacterial co-infection.     

Identification and characterization of a myeloid differentiation factor 88 (MyD88) cDNA from Zhikong scallop Chlamys farreri

Myeloid differentiation factor 88 (MyD88) is a universal and essential adapter for the TLR/IL-1R family. In this report, the first mollusk Myd88 ortholog (named as CfMyd88) was cloned from Zhikong scallop (Chlamys farreri). The full-length cDNA of CfMyd88 was of 1554 bp, including a 5'-terminal untranslated region (UTR) of 427 bp, a polyA tail, and an open reading frame (ORF) of 1104 bp encoding a polypeptide of 367 amino acids containing the typical TLR and IL-1R-related (TIR) domain and death domain (DD). Homology analysis revealed that the predicted amino acid sequence of CfMyd88 was homologous to a variety of previously identified Myd88s with more than 30% identity. The temporal expressions of CfMyd88 mRNA in the mixed primary cultured haemocytes stimulated by lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and peptidoglycans (PGN) were measured by real-time RT-PCR system. The mRNA expression of CfMyd88 decreased after stimulation with both LPS and PGN, and the lowest level was about 1/3 times (at 6 h) and 1/10 times (at 9 h) to that in the control group, respectively. The expression then recovered and was upregulated to two-fold at 9 h after LPS stimulation or to the original level at 12 h after PGN stimulation. The results suggest that the MyD88-dependent signaling pathway exists in scallop and was involved in the defense system.     

Prognostic Value of Myeloid Differentiation Primary Response 88 and Toll-Like Receptor 4 in Breast Cancer Patients

Purpose

Breast cancer remains a major cause of death in women worldwide, and tumor metastasis is the leading cause of death in breast cancer patients after conventional treatment. Chronic inflammation is often related to the occurrence and growth of various malignancies. This study evaluated the prognosis of breast cancer patients based on contributors to the innate immune response: myeloid differentiation primary response 88 (MyD88) and Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4).

Methods

We analyzed data from 205 breast invasive ductal carcinoma (IDC) patients who were treated at the Department of Breast Surgery, Key Laboratory of Breast Cancer in Shanghai, Fudan University Shanghai Cancer Center, from 2002 to 2006. Overall survival (OS) and disease-free survival (DFS) were compared.

Results

In total, 152 patients (74.15%) were disease-free without relapse or metastasis, whereas 53 (25.85%) patients developed recurrence or metastasis. A significant positive correlation was observed between MyD88 and TLR4 expression (p<0.001). Patients with high expression were more likely to experience death and recurrence/metastasis events (p<0.05). Patients with low MyD88 or TLR4 expression levels had better DFS and OS than patients with high expression levels (log-rank test: p<0.001). Patients with low MyD88 and TLR4 expression levels had better DFS and OS than patients with high expression levels of either (log-rank test: p<0.001). In a multivariate analysis, high MyD88 expression was an independent predictive factor for decreased DFS (adjusted HR, 3.324; 95% CI, 1.663–6.641; p = 0.001) and OS (adjusted HR, 4.500; 95% CI, 1.546–13.098; p = 0.006).

Conclusions

TLR4-MyD88 signaling pathway activation or MyD88 activation alone may be a risk factor for poor prognosis in breast cancer. Therefore, TLR4-MyD88 signaling pathway activation in tumor biology provides a novel potential target for breast cancer therapy.     

MyD88在鼠衣原体生殖道感染过程中的作用

用1×104IFUs的MoPn经生殖道感染WT、MyD88 KO小鼠,每组一半小鼠于感染后54d,再次感染相同剂量的MoPn。每隔3-4d取生殖道分泌物,测定其中衣原体包涵体的数量。初次感染后80d,处死小鼠,眼眶取血,分离血清,用间接免疫荧光法测其中抗体类型及效价;同时分离生殖道,肉眼观察其输卵管、子宫角水肿程度,并做病理切片观察其炎症反应;分离小鼠脾细胞,体外用衣原体EB刺激,测定产生的IL-4、IL-5、IL-17和IFN-γ等细胞因子水平。MyD88 KO小鼠阴道带菌时间与WT组相当,但上生殖道病理反应,尤其是输卵管水肿程度明显比WT组严重。脾细胞细胞因子水平显示,MyD88 KO鼠IFN-γ和IL-17的产生量明显比WT组低,而IL-4和IL-5水平明显高于WT组。血清中各亚类抗体效价无明显区别,但MyD88 KO鼠血清IgG2a/IgG1比值1,且明显低于WT组。研究结果说明MyD88与抗衣原体免疫无关,但与衣原体引起的炎症损伤密切相关。     

Involvement of MyD88 in host defense and the down-regulation of anti-heat shock protein 70 autoantibody formation by MyD88 in Toxoplasma gondii-infected mice

This study investigated the influence of TLR (toll-like receptor)4, TLR2, and MyD88 in Toxoplasma gondii-infected wild-type (WT) mice and TLR4-, TLR2-, and MyD88-deficient mice. Ninety-five percent of MyD88-deficient mice died 10-16 days after intraperitoneal infection with 100 cysts of T. gondii Fukaya strain, whereas 95-100% of TLR4- and TLR2-deficient mice and WT C57BL/6 (B6) mice survived for more than 7 wk after T. gondii infection. The distribution of T. gondii in various organs of TLR4-, TLR2-, and MyD88-deficient mice and WT B6 mice was assessed 2 wk after T. gondii intraperitoneal infection using quantitative competitive polymerase chain reaction. In MyD88-deficient mice, high levels of T. gondii load were observed in the brain, tongue, heart, lungs, spleen, liver, mesenteric lymph node, and kidneys after infection. The T. gondii load was significantly increased in the lungs in both TLR4- and TLR2-deficient mice compared with WT B6 mice. High levels of anti-mouse heat shock protein (mHSP)70 autoantibody and anti-T. gondii HSP70 antibody production were detected in the sera from MyD88-deficient mice.