Plant species and communities assessment in interaction with edaphic and topographic factors; an ecological study of the mount Eelum District Swat,Pakistan

The current analyses of vegetation were aimed to study the different effects of environmental variables and plant species and communities interaction to these variables, identified threats to local vegetation and suggestion for remedial measures in the Mount Eelum, Swat, Pakistan. For assessment of environmental variability quantitative ecological techniques were used through quadrats having sizes of 2 × 2, 5 × 5 and 10 × 10 m² for herbs, shrubs and trees respectively. Result of the present study revealed 124 plant species in the study area. Canonical Correspondence Analysis (CCA) was used to analyze the ecological gradient of vegetation. The environmental data and species abundance were used in CANOCO software version 4.5. The presence absence data of plant species were elaborated with Cluster and Two Way Cluster Analysis techniques using PC-ORD version 5 to show different species composition that resulted in five plant communities. Findings indicate that elevation, aspect and soil texture are the strongest variables that have significant effect on species composition and distribution of various communities shown with P value 0.0500. It is recommended to protect and use sensibly whole of the Flora normally and rare species particularly in the region.     

Identifying plant species and communities across environmental gradients in the Western Himalayas: Method development and conservation use

Phytosociological attributes of plant species and associated environmental factors were measured in order to identify the environmental gradients of major plant communities in the Naran Valley, Himalayas. The valley occupies a distinctive geographical setting on the edge of the Western Himalaya near the Hindukush range and supports a high biodiversity; pastoralism is the main land use. There have been no previous quantitative ecological studies in this region. This study was undertaken to (i) analyze and describe vegetation using classification and ordination techniques, (ii) identify environmental gradients responsible for plant community distributions and (iii) assess the anthropogenic pressures on the vegetation and identify priorities for conservation. Phytosociological characteristics of species were measured alongside environmental variables. A total of 198 species from 68 families were quantified at 144 stations along 24 transects across an elevation range of 2450–4100 m. Correspondence Analysis techniques i.e., Detrended Correspondence Analysis (DCA) and Canonical Correspondence Analysis (CCA) were used to determine vegetation–environment relationships. Results show vegetation changes with altitude from moist-cool temperate communities characterized by woody species, to more dry-cold subalpine and alpine herbaceous communities. Plant species diversity is optimal at middle altitudes (2800–3400 m); at lower altitudes (2400–2800 m) it is reduced by anthropogenic impacts and at higher altitudes (3400–4100 m) by shallow soils and high summer grazing pressure. A large number of plant species of conservation concern were identified in the study and an assessment made of the main threats to their survival.     

Vegetation mapping and multivariate approach to indicator species of a forest ecosystem: A case study from the Thandiani sub Forests Division (TsFD) in the Western Himalayas

QuestionsDoes the plant species composition of Thandiani sub Forests Division (TsFD) correlate with edaphic, topographic and climatic variables? Is it possible to identify different plant communities in relation to environmental gradients with special emphasis on indicator species? Can this approach to vegetation classification support conservation planning?LocationThandiani sub Forests Division, Western Himalayas.MethodsQuantitative and qualitative characteristics of species along with environmental variables were measured using a randomly stratified design to identify the major plant communities and indicator species of the Thandiani sub Forests Division. Species composition was recorded in 10 × 2.5 × 2 and 0.5 × 0.5 m square plots for trees, shrubs and herbs, respectively. GPS, edaphic and topographic data were also recorded for each sample plot. A total of 1500 quadrats were established in 50 sampling stations along eight altitudinal transects encompassing eastern, western, northern and southern aspects (slopes). The altitudinal range of the study area was 1290 m to 2626 m above sea level using. The relationships between species composition and environmental variables were analyzed using Two Way Cluster Analysis (TWCA) and Indicator Species Analysis (ISA) via PCORD version 5.ResultsA total of 252 plant species belonging to 97 families were identified. TWCA and ISA recognized five plant communities. ISA additionally revealed that mountain slope aspect, soil pH and soil electrical conductivity were the strongest environmental factors (p ≤ 0.05) determining plant community composition and indicator species in each habitat. The results also show the strength of the environment-species relationship using Monte Carlo procedures.ConclusionsAn analysis of vegetation along an environmental gradient in the Thandiani sub Forests Division using the Braun-Blanquet approach confirmed by robust tools of multivariate statistics identified indicators of each sort of microclimatic zones/vegetation communities which could further be used in conservation planning and management not only in the area studied but in the adjacent regions exhibit similar sort of environmental conditions.     

神头二电厂灰场植物群落分析研究

火电厂贮灰场常位于电厂附近平原地带,占地面积大,贮留时间长,以山西省神头二电厂马邑贮灰场为例,采用等级聚合分类分析。群落多样性与环境因子的方差分析和相关分析等方法。系统研究了灰场环境对植物群落类型,分布,多样性的影响。结果表明：灰场区植物分为4个群落,以强耐盐碱的碱蓬群落为优势群落,群落分布和多样性受灰场的影响较小,但随着土壤盐渍化程度的加重,植物群落多样性,均匀性呈下降趋势。     

Eco-Floristic studies of native plants of the Beer Hills along the Indus River in the districts Haripur and Abbottabad,Pakistan

The present study was conducted to elaborate vegetation composition structure to analyze role of edaphic and topographic factors on plant species distribution and community formation during 2013–14. A mixture of quadrat and transect methods were used. The size of quadrat for trees shrubs and herbs were 10 × 5, 5 × 2, 1 × 1 meter square respectively. Different phytosociological attribute were measured at each station. Primary results reported 123 plant species belong to 46 families. Asteraceae and Lamiaceae were dominant families with 8 species each. PCORD version 5 were used for Cluster and Two Way Cluster Analyses that initiated 4 plant communities within elevation range of 529–700 m from sea level. Indicator species analyses (ISA) were used to identify indicator species of each community. CANOCO Software (version 4.5) was used to measure the influence of edaphic and topographic variables on species composition, diversity and community formation. Whereas Canonical Correspondence Analysis (CCA) was used to measure the effect of environmental variables which showed elevation and aspect were the stronger environmental variable among topographic and CaCO₃ contents, electric conductivity, soil pH were the stronger edaphic factors in determination of vegetation and communities of the Bheer Hills. Grazing pressure was one of the main anthropogenic factors in this regard.     

Classification of habitats highlights priorities for conservation policies: The case of Spanish Mediterranean tall humid herb grasslands

The Mediterranean grasslands of Molinio-Holoschoenion are one of the lesser known natural habitat types of interest for conservation in the European Community. A study on their content with regard to their plant-communities and interest for plant conservation is conducted on a regional scale for the first time. A new comprehensive classification is proposed for this habitat type in Spain (Iberian Peninsula and Balearic and Canary Islands) where they have their highest European diversity. Twenty-five plant-community types are floristically identified by k-means clustering. Cluster analysis reveals a major hierarchical aggregation in two vegetation groups: (i) rush meadows of Scirpoides holoschoenus (L.) Soják; and (ii) communities of herbs and forbs dominated by Molinia caerulea (L.) Moench subsp. arundinacea (Schrank) H. Paul and/or Schoenus nigricans L. These groups are associated with different positions along a soil moisture gradient where rush formations occupy the positions farthest from the water table. Cluster Analysis also shows an uneven distribution of species with conservation interest. The highest content in endangered species is found in halophilous rushes. Grasslands on mineralised soils host the highest number of vulnerable species. Spanish Molinio-Holoschoenion plant communities were ranked using three criteria (regional responsibility, local rarity and habitat vulnerability) in order to set conservation priorities. The highest conservation values were achieved by coastal rush communities developing on dune slacks, and by forbs and rushes in the Baetic System growing on banks of streams with oligotrophic waters.     

The response of Mediterranean herbaceous community to soil disturbance by native wild boars

Native wild boar (Sus scrofa lybicus) populations in Israel increased in the last decades, and their rooting activity presents an apparent severe disturbance that may affect herbaceous plant communities. We studied the extent of wild boar rooting and its effect on herbaceous vegetation in an east Mediterranean garrigue. We compared the effects of rooting soil disturbance (RSD) between summer, winter, and RSD-free control plots on herbaceous plants. RSD affected four percent of the area covered by herbaceous vegetation in winter and spring, and only 2 % in summer. Summer RSD increased herbaceous species diversity in the following spring by decreasing the abundance of the dominant species, but it did not affect total herbaceous biomass. Winter RSD lowered herbaceous biomass but did not affect herbaceous plant abundance or diversity. We conclude that Mediterranean herbaceous plant community appears to be resilient to RSD, causing only minor changes in species composition and small decrease of their biomass. The contrast between the relatively large extent of wild boars RSD, and its limited impact on the herbaceous plant community, can be attributed to the long mutual evolutionary history of wild boars and these vegetation communities.     

木论喀斯特林区翠柏群落学特征的初步研究

广西木论喀斯特林区,位于我国中亚热带南缘。据６００ｍ２翠柏群落样方调查结果：有维管束植物７６种,隶５１科６９属,其中单种的属占８９．９％。植物区系以热带分布区类型为主,占总属数（不含世界分布）的７１．０％,温带分布占２５．８％,但群落的种类组成是以亚热带成分占优势,按Ｒａｒｎｋｉａｅｒ生活型分类系统,高位芽植物占８２．９％,地面芽植物占１５．８％,一年生植物占１．３％,缺少地上芽和地下芽植物;从生理角度分析,叶级以小型叶（包括微型和鳞型叶）为主,占５９．２％;叶型以单叶占的比例最大,为８６．８％,群落结构可分为乔、灌、草三层,其中乔木层又可分出二个亚层。对该群落各乔木种群的大小结构分析,显示出翠柏群落是相对稳定性较大的群落。     

Relationships between vegetation and climate on the Loess Plateau in China

The Loess Plateau is one of the most environmentally sensitive regions in China. This study addresses the relationships between vegetation and climate of this area quantitatively at a large-scale, in order to determine the factors that control vegetation distribution. The Loess Plateau, located at 101°01′–155°10′ E and 34°02′–40°40′ N, covers an area of 52 million hectares. Vegetation data were collected from the vegetation map (1:500,000) and the Landsat Thematic Mapper scenes of the Loess Plateau. The Loess Plateau was divided into small districts of 30′ latitude by 30′ longitude on the vegetation map. In each district, areas with different vegetation were measured and used as vegetation data. The climatic data were average values of county meteorological records in each district in the past 25 years. GIS, TWINSPAN and canonical correspondence analysis (CCA) were employed for analysis. 257 small districts were clustered into 7 groups using TWINSPAN, representing 7 vegetation regions or subregions. The first three CCA axes had significant correlations with climate. The first CCA axis represented the variation of vegetation and climate along the latitude gradient, while the second CCA axis the variation along the longitude gradient. The distribution pattern of 171 vegetation formations on the CCA plot is identical to that of vegetation regions (districts). The spatial distribution of vegetation is closely related to climate variables on the Loess Plateau. Water variables and temperature are important in both latitude and longitude gradients, while the sunshine hours, accumulated temperature and wind speed are more important than water variables and temperature in longitude gradients.     

Diversity and occurrence of herbaceous communities in West African savannas in relation to climate,land use and habitat

In the face of the current changes in land use and climate as well as habitat destruction, it is important to study herbaceous vegetation as an indicator of changes occurring in savanna ecosystems. We investigated the effects of climate, land use and habitat, both alone and in combination, on the diversity and occurrence of West African savanna herbaceous plant communities. Floristic data and environmental variables were sampled in Burkina Faso and subjected to ordination and indicator species analysis to explore the variation in nine vegetation types. Regression analyses showed that climate, land use, humidity gradient, soil fraction and vegetation structure discriminate herbaceous plant communities. Climate, habitat and their interaction had the greatest effect on the occurrence of these communities. Changes in species richness of the studied communities were mainly due to climate, land use and their interaction, which were more important for increasing rather than decreasing diversity. In all cases, climate conditions remained the most important environmental factor driving vegetation variation in West African savannas. Beside this, the effects of habitat degradation in interaction with land use and climatic conditions indicate land use to be a threat for the diversity of the herbaceous vegetation.     

Herbaceous ecosystems on the Guayana Shield, a regional overview

Aims Ecosystems dominated by herbaceous plant communities are amongst the most diversified landscape units in the Guayana (Guiana) Shield region. This paper aims to present a synthetic overview of the wide array of herbaceous ecosystems found in the region in an attempt to furnish a more concrete baseline for a better understanding of the pattern of variation, and to clarify some of the differences that occur in the vegetation of the area. Location The Guayana Shield region, and the area of north‐eastern South America extending between the Orinoco River to the North and the Amazon River to the South (c. 8° N to 1° S). Methods Floristic and ecological field data gathered from over 300 study sites located at different altitudinal levels in the Venezuelan Guayana and the northern Brazilian Amazon are evaluated and interpreted in the light of personal observations and existing literature. Results The diversification pattern includes physiognomic as well as floristic variation and shows two opposing tendencies in relation to their altitudinal location: grass‐dominated meadows (savannas) predominate in the macrothermic lowlands, whereas non‐gramineous, broadleaved herbaceous communities are dominant in the mesothermic highlands of the Guayanan mountains. In detail, the biogeographic region of Guayana (Guiana) consists of three easily recognized altitudinal levels, each of which contains a highly characteristic set of landscape types with their associated ecosystems and endemic plant communities. Between 0 and c. 500 m a.s.l. the extensive macrothermic (mean annual temperature, MAT > 24 °C) lowlands are found, where an enormous – still largely unexplored – diversity of forest types represents the main plant cover of the plains, peneplains, glacis and piedmont slopes. Sparsely distributed within this forest cover are numerous herbaceous ecosystems, ranging from true grass savannas to unusual and poorly understood meadows developed on extremely oligotrophic white sandy soils dominated by non‐gramineous genera of Rapateaceae and Xyridaceae. In the intermediate submesothermic (MAT 24–18 °C) Guayana uplands, extending roughly between 500 and 1500 m a.s.l., the grasslands of the Gran Sabana in south‐eastern Venezuela reach their upper altitudinal limit. At the same altitudinal level, however, several distinct herbaceous communities are found, in which other genera of Rapateaceae, together with Bromeliaceae and Xyridaceae, are predominant. Finally, at the uppermost altitudinal level, i.e. in Pantepui (which includes the characteristically flat topped mountain summits (tepuis) of the Guayana highlands) between 1500 and 3000 m a.s.l., encompassing a range of meso‐ to submicrothermic temperature regimes (MAT 18–8 °C), the extensive herbaceous ecosystems are developed either on deep organic soils (peat) or on open sandstone surfaces. These high‐tepui meadows present a considerable physiognomic diversification and are formed by a variety of endemic genera of the Rapateaceae, Bromeliaceae, Xyridaceae, Eriocaulaceae and Cyperaceae families, often dominated by locally endemic species on each of the larger tepui massifs. In contrast, grass dominated plant communities are very rare and restricted to only a few high‐tepui sites. Main conclusions A marked floristic and ecologic differentiation of herbaceous ecosystems in the Guayana Shield region can be recognized. The ecological differentiation results primarily from the wide spectrum of variations in the substrate found at the various altitudinal levels of the Guayana Shield region. A possible explanation for the present‐day pattern of herbaceous vegetation types may be the following: Non‐gramineous meadows representing ancient species pools of Guayana‐centred families had evolved successful colonization strategies in occupying extremely nutrient poor sites at all altitudinal levels. In contrast, the more modern grass savannas, which preferentially occupy the peripheral Guayana landscapes, are restricted to richer soil conditions with better internal drainage and water retention conditions.     

Vegetation communities in continental boreal wetlands along a salinity gradient: Implications for oil sands mining reclamation

Oil sands mining is a major disturbance to boreal landscapes in north-eastern Alberta, Canada. Freshwater peatlands dominate the landscape prior to mining, but the post-mining reclamation landscape will have wetlands that span a salinity gradient. Little is known about the native vegetation communities in subsaline and saline marshes in the boreal region, yet these communities offer the best potential for reclamation of wetlands after oil sands mining. The overall intent of this study is to provide information on natural wetland communities along a gradient of salinities that can be used to enhance oil sands wetland reclamation. Our specific study objectives were to: (1) characterize environmental conditions of industrial and natural wetlands, (2) characterize vegetation communities (composition and diversity) in these wetlands, (3) and explore how vegetation communities (composition and diversity) may be influenced by environmental conditions. We surveyed vegetation communities and environmental variables in 25 natural boreal wetlands along a salinity gradient and in 10 industrial marshes in the oil sands mining region. We observed an electrical conductivity (EC) range of 0.5-28 mS cm⁻¹ in the wetlands, indicating that salinity similar to or higher than anticipated for oil sands reclamation is naturally present in some boreal wetlands. We observed low species richness in both industrial and natural wetlands. There were 101 plant species observed in all the wetlands, with 82 species recorded in the natural wetlands and 44 species in industrial wetlands. At the plot level, richness decreased with increasing EC and pH, but increased with soil organic matter. Using Cluster Analysis and indicator species analysis we defined 16 distinct vegetation community types, each dominated by one or two species of graminoid vegetation. In general these communities resembled those of boreal or prairie marshes. Electrical conductivity, pH, and water depth were important factors correlating with community composition of the wetlands, however peat depth and soil organic content did not differ among community types. Not all community types were present in industrial wetlands, indicating that these communities may need to be planted to enhance overall diversity in future reclaimed oil sands wetlands.     

Ungulates increase forest plant species richness to the benefit of non‐forest specialists

Large wild ungulates are a major biotic factor shaping plant communities. They influence species abundance and occurrence directly by herbivory and plant dispersal, or indirectly by modifying plant‐plant interactions and through soil disturbance. In forest ecosystems, researchers’ attention has been mainly focused on deer overabundance. Far less is known about the effects on understory plant dynamics and diversity of wild ungulates where their abundance is maintained at lower levels to mitigate impacts on tree regeneration. We used vegetation data collected over 10 years on 82 pairs of exclosure (excluding ungulates) and control plots located in a nation‐wide forest monitoring network (Renecofor). We report the effects of ungulate exclusion on (i) plant species richness and ecological characteristics, (ii) and cover percentage of herbaceous and shrub layers. We also analyzed the response of these variables along gradients of ungulate abundance, based on hunting statistics, for wild boar (Sus scrofa), red deer (Cervus elaphus) and roe deer (Capreolus capreolus). Outside the exclosures, forest ungulates maintained higher species richness in the herbaceous layer (+15%), while the shrub layer was 17% less rich, and the plant communities became more light‐demanding. Inside the exclosures, shrub cover increased, often to the benefit of bramble (Rubus fruticosus agg.). Ungulates tend to favour ruderal, hemerobic, epizoochorous and non‐forest species. Among plots, the magnitude of vegetation changes was proportional to deer abundance. We conclude that ungulates, through the control of the shrub layer, indirectly increase herbaceous plant species richness by increasing light reaching the ground. However, this increase is detrimental to the peculiarity of forest plant communities and contributes to a landscape‐level biotic homogenization. Even at population density levels considered to be harmless for overall plant species richness, ungulates remain a conservation issue for plant community composition.     

Determination of plant species cover by means of image analysis

Abstract. A method is described for the determination of plant species cover in herbaceous plant communities by means of image analysis. It is a computerized extension of the quadrat-charting method. The method was tested with four different computer systems for three different vegetation types, a shady lawn, a pioneer vegetation and a forest floor. We compared the results with vertical point-intercept analyses of the same stands. Image analysis revealed a high accuracy of the method ranging from < ± 1 to about ± 2% cover depending on the dominance of the species being analysed. The method is particularly suitable for the analysis of low herbaceous or unsaturated vegetation, dominance stands of broad-leaved plant species and for the analysis of cover changes in permanent plots.     

Intermediary disturbance increases tree diversity in riverine forest of southern Brazil

Floods are frequently associated with disturbance in structuring riverine forests and they lead to environmental heterogeneity over space and time. We evaluated the distribution of tree species, ecological groups, species richness and diversity from the point bar to the slope of a riverside forest in southern Brazil (Lat. 30°01′S, Long. 52°47′W) to analyze the effects of flooding on soil properties and forest structure. A plot of 50 × 200 m divided in five contiguous transects of 10 × 200 m parallel to the river was installed, where we measured all the individual trees with pbh ≥ 15 cm. A detailed topographical and soil survey was carried out across the plot and indicated significant differences in organic matter and most mineral nutrients through the topographical gradient. The 1,229 surveyed individuals belonged to 72 species and 35 families. We used Partial CCA and Species Indicator Analysis to observe the spatial distribution of species. Both analyses showed that species distribution was strongly related to the flooding gradient, soil properties and also by space and pure spatial structuring of species and environmental variables (spatial autocorrelation), although a large part of variation remains unexplained. The ecological groups of forest stratification, plant dispersal and requirements for germination indicated slight differences among frequently, occasional and non-flooded transects. Species richness and diversity were higher at intermediate elevations and were associated to the increased spatial–temporal environmental heterogeneity. Across the plot, the direct influence of flooding on tree species distribution created a vegetation zonation that is determined by predicted ecological traits.     

Main vegetation types and plant species diversity along an altitudinal gradient of Al Baha region,Saudi Arabia

Plant species composition patterns and vegetation types were investigated along Elevational Gradients in Al Baha region, Saudi Arabia. Sandy plain, wadis, drainage lines, rocky outcrops, hills and fallow lands occur over a wide geographic range encompassing variation in plant species and communities among these different ecological sites. To provide a quantitatively based classification of the vegetation we used Multi Variant Statistical Package (MVSP) software, followed by the re-arrangement of a matrix of the similar plant species in rows and similar sample sites in columns. Plant density and environmental variables were measured and recorded in each quadrat. Two-way indicator species analysis and Canonical Correspondence Analysis (CCA) were used to analyze the relationships between vegetation and environmental variables, while Arc Map was used to analyze the pattern of plant species density. A total of 59 sample plots (25 × 25 m), stratified, randomly-placed relevés were collected in Al Baha region, along a cross section running from south-west to north-west. About 190 plant species belonging to 59 families were recognized. This study showed that these plant species formed 15 vegetation types that primarily correspond mainly to different combinations of elevation, and topography. The study concluded that this research has provided the first quantitative and systematic survey of the vegetation in Al Baha region.     

How does size and isolation affect patches of steppe-like vegetation on slumping hills in Transylvania,Romania?

The region of Southern Transylvania in Romania contains large expanses of species-rich grassland and mixed farmland. Within these landscapes, clusters of small, steep-sided slumping hills support mosaics of herbaceous vegetation caused by the heterogeneity in temperature and water supply and maintained by mowing or grazing. These are of conservation interest not only for the high species density, but also the relict steppe-like vegetation types especially found on their south-facing slopes. Usually surrounded by more intensively used mesic grassland, these hills can be considered patches of species-rich grassland vegetation. We therefore surveyed the vascular plants in 10 m² plots on the south- and north-facing slopes of 50 hills in 12 clusters in order to investigate the influence of their size and isolation on the species richness and composition of the vegetation. We found that larger hills had higher plot-scale species richness, a greater proportion of competitive species and a lower proportion of species of steppe-like vegetation, but only on their south-facing slopes where the conditions are more extreme. Both large and small hills should be considered as important habitats and potential sources of propagules for plant communities in the surrounding areas.     

The occurrence and abundance of plants with extrafloral nectaries, the basis for antiherbivore defensive mutualisms, along a latitudinal gradient in east Asia

Abstract. The occurrence and abundance of indigenous plants with extrafloral nectaries was evaluated within local communities and regional floras along a north to south gradient from tundra in northeastern Russia (64–70°N) through temperate types in eastern Russia and Korea to subtropical vegetation in the Bonin Islands (26–27°N) south of Japan. Moving from tundra to subtropical vegetation, there is a pattern of increasing abundance of extrafloral bearing plants as a function of total plant cover (from 10.25 to 40.18%), number of species per sampled area (from 0.11 to 1.13/100 m), and proportion of species within regional floras (from 0.32 to 7.46%). There were some plants with extrafloral nectaries in all communities but their abundance varied greatly, c. 1–25% in the four northern latitudes and c. 7–70% in the subtropical region. Ants, the primary mutualists associated with plants bearing extrafloral nectaries, have a similar pattern of increasing abundance (species richness, nest density, and colony size) along the same north–south latitudinal gradient.     

Naturally recruited herbaceous vegetation in abandoned Belgian limestone quarries: towards habitats of conservation interest analogues?

We examined if naturally recruited herbaceous vegetation in abandoned Belgian limestone quarries tend towards plant communities analogous to semi-natural habitats of conservation interest. We studied taxon-based assemblages (using two-dimensional non-metric multidimensional scaling ordination) and functional patterns (relative to Grime’s competitor, stress tolerator and ruderal plant strategies (CSR) classification) of plant communities (n = 360 plots) among three different time periods after quarry abandonment (< 3 y, 3–20 y, >?20 y). We compared those successional assemblages with those of habitat of conservation interest plant communities (n = 53 plots): lowland hay meadows and rupicolous, xerophilous and mesophilous calcareous grasslands. Our results indicate that naturally recruited herbaceous vegetation compositionally resembled mesophilous grassland, even though initial substrate conditions were more similar to rupicolous or xerophilous grasslands. The specific successional pathway we found in CSR state-space differs from Grime's predictions because there was a functional shift in plant assemblages from dominance by ruderals to dominance by stress-tolerant species. The differences in successional trajectories we found on different types of rock substrate suggest that conservation management should adopt a site-specific approach, recognizing that the highest probabilities of success on hard limestone will be restoration to calcareous grassland analogues.