Nitrogen metabolism and protein requirements for maintenance of growing Red Norte bulls

Dietary protein adjustments can reduce environmental impact and economic losses in production systems. However, we lack information regarding nitrogen (N) metabolism and protein requirements for maintenance of crossbred animals such as Red Norte breed, precluding a precise dietary management. The objective was to evaluate the effect of increasing dietary CP levels (9%, 11%, 13%, 15% and 17%) on intake, digestibility and N balance, as well as to estimate the metabolizable protein requirements for maintenance (MPm) of growing Red Norte bulls. Thirty five animals averaging 280 ± 4.0 kg BW were fed during 45 days in a 60 : 40 forage : concentrate ratio diet in which the last 5 days were used for the digestibility trial. Intakes of CP and non-fibrous carbohydrates (NFCs) and feed efficiency linearly increased (P < 0.05) as CP levels increased, while DM, NDF, nitrogen efficiency use and ether extract were not influenced by CP levels (P > 0.05). Digestibilities of DM, organic matter, ether extract, NFC and CP as well as metabolizable energy intake linearly increased (P < 0.05), and true digestibility of CP was not affected (P > 0.05) by treatments. Urinary N and retained N linearly increased (P < 0.05) with the increase in dietary N. The MPm were estimated as 4.46 g/BW^0.75 and the efficiency of use of MPm was 0.673. In conclusion, obtained MPm requirements of growing Red Norte bulls are greater than the values reported in literature for Zebu cattle and dietary CP levels of 15% and 17% exhibited great responses for growing Red Norte cattle. However, a cost-benefit evaluation should be done before its use.     

Digestibility and utilisation of diets composed of wet distillers' solids or soyabean meal and supplemented with liquid lysine product for growing pigs

A digestibility and balance trial was carried out to study the nutrient digestibility and utilisation of protein and energy in wet distillers' solids derived from barley or soyabean meal. Eight growing pigs (30–72 kg liveweight) were used in an 8 × 6 cyclic change-over experimental design, in which eight experimental diets were arranged 2 × 2 × 2 factorially. The corresponding factors were the protein source (wet distillers' solids (DS) or soyabean meal (SBM)), protein supply (130 or 162 g crude protein (CP) kg⁻¹ dry matter (DM)) and liquid lysine product supplementation.DS and SBM contained 565 g and 485 g CP kg⁻¹ DM, respectively, and the respective lysine contents in CP were 39 g and 64 g per 160 g N. The liquid lysine product contained 527 g CP kg⁻¹ DM and lysine in CP 193 g per 160 g N.No differences were found in the total tract digestibility of the nutrients or energy among diets composed of DS or SBM without lysine supplementation. Those diets with liquid lysine product supplementation, however, had opposite effects on the digestibility of the diets composed of the different protein sources. Lysine supplementation improved the digestibility of ash (P < 0.001), ether extract (P < 0.05) and crude carbohydrates (CCH) (P < 0.05) in diets composed of DS and adversely impaired the digestibility of organic matter and CCH (P < 0.05) in diets composed of SBM. The calculated digestibility of CP and gross energy were respectively 91.2% and 88.3% in SBM and 90.2% and 85.0% in DS. The digestible and calculated net energy contents were respectively 18.16 MJ kg⁻¹ DM and 10.73 MJ kg⁻¹ DM for SBM and 19.31 MJ kg⁻¹ DM and 10.40 MJ kg⁻¹ DM for DS.The pigs on the diets composed of DS had higher total (P < 0.001) and urea (P < 0.01) nitrogen (N) excretion in urine and lower daily retention of N (P < 0.001) than the pigs on the diets composed of SBM. The liquid lysine product supplementation of the diets decreased the total and urea N excretion in urine (P < 0.001) and improved the daily N retention (P < 0.001). With lysine supplementation, the protein utilisation of the diets composed of DS was improved to the level of the diets composed of SBM. No differences were observed in the utilisation of energy among the diets composed of different protein sources.It is concluded that DS is highly digestible, but its protein is efficiently utilised only with lysine supplementation.     

Nitrogen partitioning and isotopic discrimination are affected by age and dietary protein content in growing lambs

It is difficult to separate an age-dependent fall in nitrogen use efficiency (NUE; N balance/N intake) in growing ruminants from a progressively decrease in animal protein requirements over time. This study examined the effect of dietary protein content on N partitioning, digestibility and N isotopic discrimination between the animal and its diet (Δ¹⁵N_animal-diet) evaluated at two different fattening periods (early v. late). Twenty-four male Romane lambs (age: 19 ± 4.0 days; BW: 8.3 ± 1.39 kg) were equally allocated to three dietary CP treatments (15%, 17% and 20% CP on a DM basis). Lambs were reared with their mothers until weaning, thereafter housed in individual pens until slaughter (45 kg BW). During the post-weaning period, lambs were allocated twice (early fattening (30 days post-weaning) and late fattening (60 days post-weaning)) to metabolic cages for digestibility and N balance study. When diet CP content increased, the average daily gain of lambs increased (P < 0.05) while the age at slaughter decreased (P = 0.01), but no effect was observed on feed efficiency (P > 0.10). Diet CP content had limited effect on lamb carcass traits. Higher fibre digestibility was observed at the early v. late fattening period (P < 0.001). The N intake and the urinary N excretion increased when diet CP content increased (P < 0.001) and when shifting from early to late fattening period (P < 0.001). Faecal N excretion (P = 0.14) and N balance (P > 0.10) were not affected by diet CP content. Nitrogen digestibility increased (P < 0.001) as the diet CP content increased and on average it was greater at late v. early fattening period (P = 0.02). The NUE decreased (P = 0.001) as the diet CP content increased and as the lamb became older (P < 0.001). However, the age-dependent fall in NUE observed was lower at high v. low dietary CP content (CP × age interaction; P = 0.04). The Δ¹⁵N_animal-diet was positively correlated (P < 0.05) with N intake (r = 0.59), excretion of faecal N (r = 0.41), urinary N (r = 0.69) and total manure N (r = 0.64), while negatively correlated with NUE (r = −0.57). Overall, the experiment showed NUE was lower in older lambs and when lambs were fed high diet CP content, and that Δ¹⁵N_animal-diet was a useful indicator not only for NUE but also for urinary N excretion, which is a major environmental pollution factor on farm.     

Effects of condensed tannin-amended cassava silage blend diets on feeding behavior,digestibility, nitrogen balance,milk yield and milk composition in dairy goats

Condensed tannins (CTs) are phenolic compounds derived from secondary plant metabolism that act as part of the plant's chemical defense system against pathogen invasion and herbivorous attack. This study aimed to evaluate the intake, digestibility, nitrogen (N) balance, production and composition of milk from goats fed cassava silage with added levels of CTs. Eight Anglo-Nubian goats with a mean BW of 40 ± 2.0 kg were distributed in a double Latin square design with four levels of CTs (0, 25, 50 and 75 g/kg DM) with four 20-day periods with 15 days of adaptation and five evaluation days for each period. No differences were observed in DM, NDF, CP intake and feed conversion (grams of DM intake (DMI) per gram of milk produced); however, when expressed as percent of BW, DMI showed a quadratic increase to 29.1 g/kg. As the level of supplemented CTs increased in the diet, the CP digestibility (P = 0.023), NDF (P = 0.044), non-fiber carbohydrates (NFC; P = 0.032) and total digestible nutrients (P = 0.033) exhibited a linear decrease. Furthermore, the addition of CTs to cassava silage induced a linear increase in N-fecal excretion (P = 0.014) and a positive quadratic effect on N-retained (P = 0.014) and N-balance (P = 0.024) as well as a positive quadratic trend in N-digested (P = 0.092). Milk urea N (P = 0.023) decreased linearly. The addition of CTs to cassava silage had a positive quadratic effect on ruminating time (P = 0.011). In addition, comparing the use or non-use from the orthogonal contrast test, the inclusion of CTs in goat diet increased water and N-intake, CP and NDF digestibility, spent time eating and ruminating and N-balance and decreased milk production corrected^3.5%, fat milk content, milk urea N and dry defatted extract of milk. Thus, adding CTs to cassava silage at 25 g/kg total DM promoted goats' greater use of the diet without impairing feed conversion and the quality of goat milk produced. Dietary levels of 50 and 75 g/kg total DM are not recommended because under the conditions of this study, they reduced the productive efficiency of dairy goats.     

Intake and digestion by lambs of dwarf elephant grass (Pennisetum purpureum Schum. cv. Mott) hay or hay supplemented with urea and different levels of cracked corn grain

This study was carried out to evaluate intake, digestibility, ruminal fermentation, nitrogen (N) retention and ruminal microbial protein synthesis in lambs fed dwarf elephant grass (Pennisetum purpureum Schum. cv. Mott) hay or hay supplemented with urea and 0, 5, 10 or 15 g/kg of live weight (LW) of cracked corn grain. Ten lambs (mean LW of 28 ± 0.9 kg), housed in metabolic cages, were used in a double 5 × 5 Latin Square experiment. Except fibre intake and digestibility, which was higher, the intake and digestibility of the others feed components, as well as ruminal microbial protein synthesis and N retention were lower in non-supplemented lambs. Corn supplementation increased total dry matter (DM) (P<0.05), organic matter (OM), non-structural carbohydrate (NSC) and energy intake (P<0.01) but decreased total neutral detergent fibre (aNDFom) (P<0.01) intake, as well as OM and aNDFom intake from the hay (P<0.01). Apparent DM, OM and energy digestibility, as well as OM true digestibility (OMTD) increased (P<0.01), and aNDFom digestibility decreased linearly (P<0.01) as corn supplementation increased. Total N intake was not influenced but, apparent and true N digestibility, as well as urinary N excretion decreased (P<0.01), and ruminal microbial N entering the small intestine increased linearly (P<0.01) as corn supplementation increased. However, the efficiency of ruminal microbial protein synthesis was similar for all treatments. Mean ruminal pH values and ammonia N concentrations decreased linearly (P<0.01) with level of corn supplementation. Ammonia N and amino acid, as well as peptide concentrations in ruminal fluid were quadratically related (P<0.01) with the time after feeding. Corn supplementation had a linear additive effect on total dry matter and digestible energy intake, as well as on N retention, but a linear negative effect on hay intake and on fibre digestibility. However, decreased forage digestibility by animals was probably neither related to lower ruminal pH, which values were always higher than 7.0, nor related to ruminal sugar concentrations, which were similar for all treatments.     

Effects of supplementing a CP-reduced diet with rumen-protected methionine on Fleckvieh bull fattening

The objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of supplementing a CP-reduced diet with rumen-protected methionine on growth performance of Fleckvieh bulls. A total of 69 bulls (367 ± 25 kg BW) were assigned to three feeding groups (n = 23 per group). The control (CON) diet contained 13.7% CP and 2.11 g methionine/kg diet (both DM basis) and was set as positive control. The diet reduced in CP (nitrogen) (RED) diet as negative control and the experimental RED + rumen-protected methionine (MET) diet were characterised by deficient CP concentrations (both 9.04% CP). The RED + MET diet differed from the RED diet in methionine concentration (2.54 g/kg DM vs. 1.56 g/kg DM, respectively) due to supplementation of rumen-protected methionine. Rumen-protected lysine was added to both RED and RED + MET at 2.7 g/kg DM to ensure a sufficient lysine supply relative to total and metabolisable protein intake. Metabolisable energy (ME) and nutrient composition were similar for CON, RED, and RED + MET. Bulls were fed for 105 days (d) on average. Individual feed intake was recorded daily; individual BW was recorded at the beginning of the experiment, once per month, and directly before slaughter. At slaughter, blood samples were collected and carcass traits were assessed. Reduction in dietary CP concentration reduced feed intake, and in combination with lower dietary CP concentration, daily intake of CP for RED and RED + MET was lower compared with CON (P < 0.01). Daily ME intake was reduced in RED and RED + MET compared with CON (P < 0.01). Consequently growth performance and carcass weights were reduced (both P < 0.01) in both RED and RED + MET compared with CON. Supplemental rumen-protected methionine was reflected in increased serum methionine concentration in RED + MET (P < 0.05) as compared to RED but it did not affect growth performance, carcass traits and serum amino acid (AA) concentrations, except for lysine which was reduced (P < 0.01) compared to CON and RED. In conclusion, bulls fed RED or RED + MET diets were exposed to a ruminal CP deficit and subsequently a deficit of prececal digestible protein, but methionine did not appear to be the first-limiting essential AA for growth under the respective experimental conditions.     

Growth performance,nutrient digestibility,blood parameters,and carcass characteristics by lambs fed an oregano and cobalt blend

Shifting ruminal fermentation via feeding a blend of oregano (Organum vulgare L.) essential oils and Co-lactate (EOC; Rum-A-Fresh, Ralco, Inc. Marshall, MN) could improve lamb growth and carcass performance. Eighteen Suffolk × Little Han Tail F1 male lambs (20.3 ± 0.23 kg BW and approximately 3 months old) were randomly assigned using a completely random design to one of three treatments. Treatments were (1) EOC0: basal ration without EOC, (2) EOC4: basal ration plus 4 g/d EOC, and (3) EOC7: basal ration plus 7 g/d EOC. Initial and 24 d BW was similar (P > 0.10), but at 48 and 72 d, lambs fed EOC7 demonstrated greater (P = 0.01) BW compared with EOC0 fed lambs, while lambs fed EOC4 were intermediate and similar (P > 0.05). Average daily gains (ADGs) for 0–24 and 0–72 d were greater (P < 0.05) for lambs fed EOC4 and EOC7 compared with lambs fed EOC0, while DM intake was similar (P > 0.10). Feed conversions for 0–24 d were improved (P < 0.02) for lambs fed EOC4 and EOC7 compared with lambs fed EOC0. However, 0–72-d feed conversions were greater (P < 0.01) for lambs fed EOC7 compared to lambs fed EOC0, with lambs fed EOC4 being intermediate and similar (P > 0.05). DM, NDF, and ADF digestibilities were similar (P > 0.10) among treatments, while CP digestibility was greater (P < 0.01) for lambs fed EOC4 and EOC7 compared with lambs fed EOC0. Carcass weight and dressing percentages were improved (P < 0.01) for lambs fed EOC7 compared with lambs fed EOC0 and EOC4. Head width was greater (P > 0.01) for lambs fed EOC7 compared with lambs fed EOC0 and EOC4, while rump width was greater (P > 0.01) for lambs fed EOC4 and EOC7 compared with lambs fed EOC0. Plasma triglyceride and cholesterol concentrations were lower (P < 0.05) for lambs fed EOC4 and EOC7 compared with lambs fed EOC0, while albumin, total serum protein, and glucose concentrations were greater (P < 0.05) for lambs fed EOC4 and EOC7 compared with lambs fed EOC0. Feeding an EOC blend as an alternative antibiotic growth promoter at 4 and 7 g/d linearly improved lamb growth performance, feed conversions, frame growth, carcass weights, dressing percentages, and immunity.     

Influence of undegraded intake protein on intake,digestion, serum hormones and metabolites,and nitrogen balance in sheep

In Exp. 1, 20 ewes of mixed breeding were fed grass hay : straw mixtures, assigned to one of four supplemental treatments and evaluated during six collection periods. Supplemental treatments were control (no supplement), and low, medium, and high levels (5.2%, 22.1%, and 41.3% of DM, respectively) of undegraded intake protein (UIP). Supplements were formulated to be similar in degraded intake protein (DIP; 21%). Digestibilities of DM, OM, and CP were increased (P < 0.10) with protein supplementation and in medium and high compared with low UIP supplemented ewes. Digestibility of CP also was increased (P < 0.10) in ewes on high compared with medium treatments. Serum insulin was not influenced (P > 0.10) by UIP treatment, except in collection period four. In contrast, serum glucose and growth hormone were not influenced (P > 0.10) by UIP treatment. In Exp. 2, four wether lambs fed the same treatments as in Exp. 1, were used in two 4 × 4 Latin squares trials. In trial 1 lambs received a grass hay diet (6.7% CP) and in trial 2 lambs were fed 40 : 60 blend (6.6% CP) of grass hay and spring wheat straw. In both trials, N intake, urinary N, N digestion, apparent N absorption, and N retention were increased (P < 0.10) with protein supplementation. In addition, in trial 1, urinary N, N digestion, and apparent N absorption were increased (P < 0.10) in medium and high compared with low UIP and also in high compared with medium UIP treatments. In trial 2 of Exp. 2, total feed intake (g/kg BW), digestibility of DM and OM, BW, and fecal N were increased (P < 0.10) with protein supplementation. Organic matter digestion, BW, N intake, and N retention were increased by medium and high compared with low UIP. Fecal N, BW, N intake, and N retention were increased (P < 0.10) in high compared with medium UIP. These data indicate that increasing levels of UIP supplementation increases DM, OM, and CP (N) digestibility, serum urea N concentration, and N retention in sheep fed low quality forage.     

Effects of lowering crude protein supply alone or in a combination with essential oils on productivity,rumen function and nutrient utilization in dairy cows

Lowering dietary protein concentration is known to decrease urinary nitrogen (N) losses and increase milk N efficiency in dairy cows, but it may negatively affect animal productivity. Plant-derived essential oils (EO) may alleviate these negative effects by improving the efficiency of rumen fermentation in cows fed reduced feed protein diets. The experiment was conducted to investigate the effects of lowering crude protein (CP) supply alone or in a combination with an EO product on feed intake, milk production and composition, rumen fermentation, total tract digestibility and N utilization in dairy cows. Twenty-one Holstein cows were used in a replicated 3 × 3 Latin square design experiment. Each period consisted of 14 days for adaptation and 14 days for data collection and sampling. Cows were randomly assigned to one of three experimental diets: a 165 g/kg CP diet (control), a 155 g/kg CP diet (LCP) and LCP supplemented with 35 g/day per cow EO (LCPEO). The dry matter (DM) intake was decreased by LCP and LCPEO compared with the control; there was no effect of EO on DM intake. Milk yield and composition and feed efficiency were similar among treatments. Ruminal pH, lactate, ammonia and volatile fatty acids concentrations were not affected by treatment, except increased valerate concentration by LCPEO compared with LCP. The supplementation of EO tended to decrease protozoal counts. The LCP and LCPEO increased total tract digestibility of DM and organic matter and decreased CP digestibility compared with the control. Supplementation with EO did not affect total tract digestibility of dietary nutrients compared with the control or LCP. The LCP and LCPEO decreased urinary and fecal N excretions and increased milk N efficiency; nitrogen losses were not affected by EO. In this study, lowering dietary CP by 10 g/kg decreased urinary and fecal N excretion without affecting productivity. The supplementation of EO to LCP had only minor effects on rumen fermentation and did not affect productivity, digestibility and N excretion in lactating dairy cows.     

Effect of dietary sodium bicarbonate supplementation on fermentation characteristics and ciliate protozoal population in rumen of lambs

Effects of sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO₃) inclusion on rumen fermentation characteristics and ciliate protozoal population in high concentrate-fed lambs were studied. Twenty-four weaner (90 days old) Malpura lambs divided into four equal groups (G1, G2, G3 and G4) were fed basal (25:75 roughage and concentrate) diet (G1) or basal diet supplemented with 0.75% (G2), 1.50% (G3) and 2.25% (G4) sodium bicarbonate for 90 days. Daily dry matter (DM) intake and digestibility of organic matter (OM), crude protein (CP), gross energy and plane of nutrition were similar in all the groups while cellulose digestibility was higher in G4 than in G2 and G1. Ruminal pH increased (P<0.05) with increasing levels of dietary sodium bicarbonate. Concentrations of total volatile fatty acids (TVFA), total nitrogen and trichloroacetic acid-precipitable nitrogen (TCA-ppt.-N) were higher while ammonia nitrogen was lower in the rumen fluid of G4 and G3 than in G2 and G1. The number of total protozoa, Isotricha, Dasytricha, large and small spirotrichs were higher (P<0.01) in the rumen of G4 and G3 than in G2 and G1. Total live weight gain and average daily gain were also higher in lambs supplemented with sodium bicarbonate. It is concluded that sodium bicarbonate inclusion at the rate of 1.50% of total ration increased cellulose digestibility, ciliate protozoal number, ruminal pH and total nitrogen concentration resulting in improved growth of lambs maintained on high concentrate diet.     

Common vetch varietal differences in hay nutritive value,ruminal fermentation,nutrient digestibility and performance of fattening lambs

In some lower rainfall regions of the world (300–750 mm), common vetch (Vicia sativa L., hereafter referred to as vetch) has been shown to have yields competitive with alternate crops and provide high-quality hay for ruminant diets, but there are few studies of vetch performance as a livestock feed, or of vetch varietal differences in livestock feeding value. This study evaluated vetch varietal differences in hay nutritive value, ruminal fermentation properties, nutrient digestibility, nitrogen retention and animal performance in fattening lambs consuming a diet comprising 20% vetch. Fifty male Hu lambs with an initial BW of 17.7 ± 0.27 kg and 2–3 months of age were assigned randomly into five groups of 10 lambs, and each allocated one of five dietary treatments for 67 days (10 days of adaptation and a 57 day experimental period). All diets contained 30% maize stover, 50% concentrate, and with a different forage source (on an as-fed basis): 20% alfalfa hay (Control), 20% vetch 333A (C333A) hay, 20% vetch Lanjian No. 1 (CLJ1) hay, 20% vetch Lanjian No. 2 (CLJ2) hay, or 20% vetch Lanjian No. 3 (CLJ3) hay. Hay CLJ3 had greater contents of ash, CP, ether extract, in vitro organic matter digestibility and metabolizable energy, and lower cell wall contents (P < 0.05) than those of C333A and CLJ1 hays, but similar to the CLJ2 hay (P > 0.05). Compared to the Control diet, the CLJ2 and CLJ3 diets resulted in greater (P < 0.05) final BW, average daily gain, total tract apparent digestibility of CP and NDF, and nitrogen balance, both when expressed as g/day and relative to nitrogen intake, while animal performance when fed diets with C333A or CLJ1 diet did not differ (P > 0.05) from the Control diet. No differences (P > 0.05) were observed between dietary treatments with respect to average daily feed intake, ruminal pH, total volatile fatty acid contents and molar proportions of acetate, butyrate, valerate, isobutyrate, and isovalerate, or total tract apparent digestibility of DM, organic matter, and ADF. The feed efficiency of tested feeds ranked CLJ3 = CLJ2 > CLJ1 > Control with C333A intermediate between CLJ1 and Control. In summary, considering hay quality, nutrient digestibility and animal weight gain, performance as a ruminant feed of hays from recently released vetch cultivars Lanjian No. 2 and Lanjian No. 3 was superior to the older cultivar C333A and the alfalfa control.     

Effect of replacing ground corn and soybean meal with licuri cake on the performance,digestibility, nitrogen metabolism and ingestive behavior in lactating dairy cows

Licuri (Syagrus coronate) cake is a biodiesel by-product used in ruminant feed as a beneficial energy source for supplementation in managed pastures. The objective was to evaluate the performance, digestibility, nitrogen balance, blood metabolites, ingestive behavior and diet profitability of eight crossbred Holstein (3/4)×Gyr (5/8) multiparous cows (480±25 kg BW and 100 days milking) grazing and supplemented with licuri cake partially replacing ground corn and soybean meal in concentrate (0, 200, 400 and 600 g/kg in dry matter (DM)), distributed in an experimental duplicated 4×4 Latin square design. Licuri cake partially replacing ground corn and soybean meal increased (P<0.01) the intake and digestibility of ether extract and decreased the non-fiber carbohydrates; however, there were no influences on the intakes of DM, CP, NDF and total digestible nutrients (TDN). The digestibilities of DM, CP and NDF were not influenced by licuri cake addition. There was a decrease trend on TDN digestibility (P=0.08). Licuri cake replacing ground corn and soybean meal in concentrate did not affect the intake; fecal, urinary and mammary excretions; N balance; and triglycerides concentrations. However, the blood urea nitrogen (P=0.04) concentration decreased with the licuri cakes inclusion in cow supplementation. There was an increasing trend for serum creatinine (P=0.07). Licuri cake inclusion did not affect body condition score, production, yield, protein, lactose, total solids and solid non-fat contents of milk and Minas frescal cheese. There was a linear decrease in average daily weight gain (g/day). The milk fat concentration and cheese fat production (P<0.1) presented a linear increase with partial replacement of ground corn and soybean meal with licuri cakes. The addition of licuri cake did not alter the time spent feeding, ruminating or idling. There was an increasing trend in NDF feeding efficiency (P=0.09). The replacing of ground corn and soybean meal with licuri cake up to 600 g/kg decreased the concentrate cost by US$0.45/cow per day. Licuri cake replacing corn and soybeans (400 g/kg) in concentrate promoted a profit of US$0.07/animal per day. Licuri cake is indicated to concentrate the supplementation of dairy cows with average productions of 10 kg/day at levels up to 400 g/kg in the concentrate supplement because it provides an additional profit of US$0.07/animal per day and increased milk and Minas frescal cheese fat without negative effects on productive parameters.     

Effects of grain type and conditioning temperature during pelleting on growth performance,ruminal fermentation,meat quality and blood metabolites of fattening lambs

Ruminants can tolerate moderate concentrations of dietary tannin, making it feasible to replace corn with sorghum in ruminant diets; however, conditioning temperature of pelleted total mixed ration (PTMR) greatly affects nutrient digestibility. The objective was to determine effects of grain type and conditioning temperature during pelleting on growth performance, ruminal fermentation, meat quality and blood metabolites of fattening lambs. This was a 2 × 3 factorial study, with corn and sorghum and three conditioning temperatures (65, 75 and 85 °C) in a randomized complete design, with 36 lambs (120 ± 10.2 d and 24.9 ± 3.3 kg) grouped by weight and randomly allocated. The resulting six PTMRs were referred to as 65-S, 75-S and 85-S for sorghum-based diets, and 65-C, 75-C and 85-C for corn-based diets, for low, medium and high pelleting temperatures, respectively. There was no grain type × conditioning temperature (Grain × Temp) interaction on growth performance and apparent nutrient digestibility. Furthermore, grain type did not affect DM intake (DMI), average daily gain (ADG) or feed conversion ratio (FCR) of fattening lambs. Pelleting at 75 °C improved ADG (P < 0.03) and FCR (P < 0.02) of fattening lambs compared to other temperatures. There was a Grain × Temp interaction (P < 0.01) on ruminal pH (lowest in lambs fed 75-S). There tended (P = 0.07) to be a Grain × Temp interaction for total volatile fatty acid (VFA), and there were Grain × Temp interactions for molar proportions of acetate (P < 0.04), butyrate (P < 0.03) and branch-chained VFA (P < 0.01). Lambs fed sorghum-based PTMR had greater molar proportion of propionate (P < 0.03) and lower acetate to propionate ratio (A:P, P < 0.04). Lambs fed sorghum-based PTMR had higher plasma concentrations of urea nitrogen (N) (P < 0.03), glucose (P < 0.01) and alkaline phosphatase (P < 0.05), whereas other blood metabolites were not affected by treatments. There were Grain × Temp (P < 0.03) interactions for color coordinates of longissimus and mid-gluteal muscle. Lambs fed sorghum-based PTMR had lower (P < 0.01) dressing percentage and meat quality than those fed corn-based PTMR. We concluded that sorghum can replace corn in lamb diets without compromising growth performance and feed efficiency; furthermore, feeding sorghum vs corn improved rumen fermentation, with reduced A:P ratio and enhanced N and glucose utilization. Finally, pelleting at 75 °C increased feeding value of either sorghum- or corn-based PTMR for fattening lambs.     

Comparison of muscle fatty acid composition and lipid stability in lambs stall-fed or pasture-fed alfalfa with or without sainfoin pellet supplementation

Currently, consumers are increasingly interested in obtaining high-quality and healthy lamb meat. Compared to grain-based diets, dietary forage legumes such as alfalfa and condensed tannin (CT)-rich sainfoin increase the levels of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) that are beneficial for health in lamb meat thanks to their high content in PUFA and/or their impact on ruminal biohydrogenation. However, they can therefore adversely affect its oxidative stability. Thus, the impact of dietary forage legumes on lamb longissimus thoracis (LT) muscle FA composition and their stability to peroxidation was studied in 36 Romane lambs grazing alfalfa (AF; n = 12) or alfalfa plus daily supplementation with CT-rich sainfoin pellets (AS; n = 12; 15 g DM/kg BW, 42 g CT/kg DM) or stall-fed concentrate and grass hay indoors (SI; n = 12). Lambs were slaughtered at a mean age of 162 ± 8.0 days after an average experimental period of 101 ± 8.1 days. Forage legumes-grazing lambs outperformed SI lambs in LT nutritional quality, with more conjugated linoleic acids and n-3 PUFAs, especially 18:3n-3, eicosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic acids (P < 0.001), and thus lower n-6 PUFA/n-3 PUFA and 18:2 n-6/18:3 n-3 ratios (P < 0.001). Peroxidizability index was higher (P < 0.001) in LT muscle of forage legumes-grazing lambs. Concurrently, two endogenous antioxidant enzyme activities, superoxide dismutase and glutathione peroxidase, were, respectively, similar and lower (P < 0.001) for forage legumes-grazing compared with SI lambs. A lower vitamin E level in SI lambs compared with forage legumes-grazing lambs (1.0 v. 3.8 mg/g, P < 0.001) could explain that malondialdehyde content, a marker of lipid oxidation intensity, was 0.63 µg/g in SI after 8 days in aerobic packaging conditions, whereas it remaining steady at 0.16 µg/g in forage legumes-grazing lambs. Dietary forage alfalfa thus improved FA composition of lamb LT muscle and their stability to oxidation when compared to SI lambs. However, supplementation of alfalfa-grazing lambs with CT-rich sainfoin pellets did not affect the nutritional quality of LT muscle FAs.     

Phytol supplementation alters plasma concentrations of formate,amino acids,and lipid metabolites in sheep

The phytol moiety in chlorophyll molecules acts as an agonist of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-α in monogastric animals. The current study aimed to clarify the effects of dietary supplementation with phytol on the plasma concentrations of formate and amino acids related to one-carbon (1C) donors and its effects on lipid metabolism in sheep. Four mature sheep were fed with a mixed ration (metabolizable energy, 10.7 MJ/kg DM; CP, 150 g/kg DM) comprising barley, rice bran, soybean meal, and oat hay at 1.5 times maintenance metabolizable energy for three consecutive 14-day experimental periods. The first and third periods served as controls without phytol supplementation, while in the second period, phytol was added to the mixed ration at 12 g/kg of dietary DM per day. In each period, feces, urine, and jugular blood samples were collected. Dry matter intake in relation to metabolic BW was slightly lower (P < 0.01) in the first period than the second and third periods but did not differ between the latter two periods. Dry matter digestibility was slightly reduced (P = 0.05) by the phytol treatment. Nitrogen (N) intake and retention showed similar trends to DM intake, but urinary N was unchanged among the periods. Plasma cholesterol and phospholipid concentrations decreased during the phytol treatment period, while triglyceride concentration increased (P < 0.05). In the phytol treatment period, the plasma concentrations of serine and glycine (1C donors) increased, but the glutamate level decreased (P < 0.01). Plasma concentrations of formate and methionine increased (P < 0.01) from the first control period to the phytol supplementation period, but homocysteine and cysteine (intermediate and by-product of the methionine cycle) levels were unchanged among the treatment periods. In conclusion, dietary phytol affects lipid metabolism as well as amino acid metabolism and 1C donors in sheep. These effects may be associated with the activity of phytol as an agonist of the nuclear receptors, although this needs further investigation.     

Rumen fluid transplantation affects growth performance of weaned lambs by altering gastrointestinal microbiota,immune function and feed digestibility

Although rumen fluid transplantation (RT) has been developed to confer benefits for adult ruminants by altering gastrointestinal tract microbiota, the question remains whether RT can also benefit weaned lambs. Hence, in this study, thirty-eight pre-weaning lambs were randomly assigned to one of three treatment groups: control lambs (CON) received 25 ml of normal saline solution, and lambs in two RT groups received 25 ml of rumen fluid either from 3-month-old lambs (LT) or from one-year-old adult ewes (AT). The effects on their growth performance, nutrient digestibility, some blood parameters and gastrointestinal tract microbiota were monitored. There were differences (P < 0.05) in rumen bacterial composition between the groups at weaning, at 3 months and at 1 year. Rumen fluid transplantation decreased (P < 0.05) average daily feed intake, average daily gain in live weight and apparent digestibility of ether extract in the LT group, and it decreased (P < 0.05) apparent digestibility of NDF and ADF in the AT group. Rumen fluid transplantation also increased (P < 0.05) concentrations of serum immunoglobulin A in the AT group and increased (P < 0.05) serum concentrations of interleukin-6, interferon alpha and D-lactate in both LT and AT groups. Bacterial α-diversity in the rumen and rectum was not affected by RT (P > 0.05), but a bacterial community change was observed after RT, and the abundance of some dominant bacteria in both rumen and rectum changed after RT (P < 0.05). Analysis of correlations between the parameters indicated that the altered gastrointestinal microbiota and accelerated maturity of rumen microorganisms induced by RT caused some impairment of gastrointestinal integrity and immunity, which led to decreased feed intake, reduced feed digestibility and lower growth performance of the weaned lambs. In conclusion, rumen fluid transplantation altered the gastrointestinal microbiota causing adverse effects on feed intake, feed digestibility and growth performance of the weaned lambs.     

Influence of dietary fibre on nutrient digestibility and energy utilisation in growing pigs fed diets varying in soluble and insoluble fibres from co-products

The co-products from the industry are used to reduce costs in pig diets. However, the co-products used in pig diets are limited because of a high fibre content which is not digested by endogenous enzymes and is resistant to degradation in the small and large intestines. The aim of this study was to investigate digestibility of nutrients and energy, and energy utilisation in pigs fed diets with various soluble and insoluble dietary fibre (DF) from co-products. The experiment was performed as a 4 × 4 Latin square design (four diets and four periods) using four growing pigs (66.2 ± 7.8 kg) surgically fitted with a T-cannula in the end of the small intestine. The pigs were fed four experimental diets: low-fibre control (LF), high-fibre control (HF), high-soluble fibre (HFS) and high-insoluble fibre (HFI) diets. The apparent ileal digestibility (AID) and apparent total tract digestibility (ATTD) of ash, organic matter, CP, fat, carbohydrates, starch and non-starch polysaccharides (NSP) divided into cellulose and soluble and insoluble non-cellulosic polysaccharide residues were measured using chromic oxide as marker. The recovery of total solid materials, organic matter and total carbohydrates in ileal digesta in pigs fed the HF and HFS diets was higher than in pigs fed LF and HFI, whereas recovery of organic matter and total carbohydrates in faecal materials in the HFS diet was lowest (P < 0.05). AID of organic matter, total carbohydrates and starch was lowest for HFS diet (P < 0.05). ATTD of organic matter and CP was higher for LF diet compared with other diets (P < 0.05), whereas total NSP, cellulose and non-cellulosic polysaccharides residues were highest for HFS diet (P < 0.05). Lactic acid in ileal digesta was influenced by dietary composition (P < 0.05) whereas neither type nor level of DF affected short chain fatty acids. The digestible energy, metabolisable energy, net energy and retained energy intake were similar among diets without influence of DF inclusion (P > 0.05). The metabolisable energy:digestible energy ratio was lower when feeding the HFS diet because of a higher fermentative methane loss. Faecal nitrogen and carbon were positively correlated with DM intake and insoluble DF in the diets (P < 0.05), but nitrogen and carbon (% of intake) were similar among diets. The present findings suggest that high-DF co-products can be used as ingredients of pig diets when features of DF are considered.     

Effects of rumen-protected betaine supplementation on meat quality and the composition of fatty and amino acids in growing lambs

Rumen-protected betaine (RPB) can enhance betaine absorption in the small intestine of ruminants, while betaine can alter fat distribution and has the potential to affect the meat quality of livestock. Hence, we hypothesized that RPB might also affect the meat quality of lambs. Sixty male Hu sheep of similar weight (30.47 ± 2.04 kg) were selected and randomly subjected to five different treatments. The sheep were fed a control diet (control treatment, CTL); 1.1 g/day unprotected-betaine supplemented diet (UPB); or doses of 1.1 g/day (low RPB treatment; L-PB), 2.2 g/day (middle RPB treatment; M-PB) or 3.3 g/day (high RPB treatment; H-PB) RPB-supplemented diet for 70 days. Slaughter performance, meat quality, fatty acid and amino acid content in the longissimus dorsi (LD) muscle, shoulder muscle (SM) and gluteus muscle (GM) were measured. Compared with CTL, betaine (including UPB and RPB) supplementation increased the average daily weight gain (ADG) (P < 0.05) and average daily feed intake (P < 0.01) of lambs. Rumen-protected betaine increased ADG (P < 0.05) compared with UPB. With increasing RPB doses, the eye muscle area of the lambs linearly increased (P < 0.05). Compared with CTL, betaine supplementation decreased water loss (P < 0.05) in SM and increased pH₂₄ in the SM (P < 0.05) and GM (P < 0.05). Compared with UPB, RPB decreased water loss in the GM (P < 0.01), decreased shear force (P < 0.05) in the LD and SM and increased the pH of the meat 24 h after slaughter (pH₂₄). With increasing RPB doses, the shear force and b* value in the LD linearly decreased (P < 0.05), and the pH₂₄ of the meat quadratically increased (P < 0.05). Compared with CTL, betaine supplementation increased the polyunsaturated fatty acid in the GM (P < 0.05). Compared with UPB, RPB supplementation decreased the saturated fatty acid (SFA) content in the LD (P < 0.05) and increased the unsaturated fatty acids (UFA), mono-unsaturated fatty acids and UFA/SFA ratio in the LD (P < 0.05). Compared with CTL, the content of histidine in the LD increased with betaine supplementation. Compared with UPB, RPB supplementation increased the content of total free amino acids and flavor amino acids in the LD of lambs (P < 0.05). With increasing RPB, the isoleucine and phenylalanine contents in the LD linearly increased (P < 0.05). Overall, the data collected indicated that the meat quality of lambs (especially in the LD) improved as a result of betaine supplementation, and RPB showed better effects than those of UPB.     

Replacing soybean meal with flax seed meal: effects on nutrient digestibility,rumen microbial protein synthesis and growth performance in sheep

Flax seed meal (FSM) is rich in various nutrients, especially CP and energy, and can be used as animal protein feed. In animal husbandry production, it is a long-term goal to replace soybean meal (SBM) in animal feed with other plant protein feed. However, studies on the effects of replacing SBM with FSM in fattening sheep are limited. The aim of this experiment was to study the effects of replacing a portion of SBM with FSM on nutrient digestibility, rumen microbial protein synthesis and growth performance in sheep. Thirty-six Dorper × Small Thin-Tailed crossbred rams (BW = 40.4 ± 1.73 kg, mean ± SD) were randomly assigned into four groups. The dietary treatments (forage/concentrate, 45 : 55) were isocaloric according to the nutrient requirements of rams. Soybean meal was replaced with FSM at different levels (DM basis): (1) 18% SBM (18SBM), (2) 12% SBM and 6% FSM (6FSM), (3) 6% SBM and 12% FSM (12FSM) and (4) 18% FSM (18FSM). The rams were fed in individual pens for 60 days, with the first 10 days for adaptation to diets, and then the digestibility of nutrients was determined. There was no significant difference in DM intake, but quadratic (P < 0.001) effects on the average daily gain and feed efficiency were detected, with the highest values in the 6FSM and 12FSM groups. For DM and NDF digestibility, quadratic effects were observed with the higher values in the 6FSM and 12FSM groups, but the digestibility of CP linearly decreased with the increase in FSM in the diet (P = 0.043). There was a quadratic (P < 0.001) effect of FSM inclusion rate on the estimated microbial CP yield. However, the values of intestinally absorbable dietary protein decreased linearly (P < 0.001). For the supply of metabolisable protein, both the linear (P = 0.001) and quadratic (P = 0.044) effects were observed with the lowest value in the 18FSM group. Overall, the results indicated that SBM can be effectively replaced by FSM in the diets of fattening sheep and the optimal proportion was 12.0% under the conditions of this experiment.     

Ileal digestibility of nutrients and amino acids in low quality soybean meal sources treated with β-mannanase for growing pigs

Apparent ileal digestibility (AID) of energy, dry matter (DM), nitrogen (N) and amino acids and standardized ileal digestibility (SID) of amino acids in low quality soybean meals with different CP concentration (SBM 44% CP and SBM 48% CP) with or without 400 U β-mannanase/kg supplementation were evaluated in 20 cannulated barrows ((Landrace×Yorkshire)×Duroc) with an average BW of 25.08±3.42 kg. A N-free diet was used to determine basal endogenous losses of amino acids. The supplementation of β-mannanase improved (P<0.05) AID of DM compared with non-supplemented diet. However, enzyme supplementation did not improve (P>0.05) AID of N and energy. The type of SBM (SBM 44% CP v. SBM 48% CP) had no effect on AID of DM, N and energy. β-mannanase improved (P<0.05) AID of sum of essential amino acids, arginine, histidine, lysine, valine and glycine. The SID of lysine was higher (P<0.05) in enzyme supplemented than in non-supplemented diets. Larger AID and SID of threonine and proline (P<0.05) were observed in SBM 48% CP than in SBM 44% CP. In conclusion, the supplementation of enzyme improved AID of arginine, histidine, lysine, valine and glycine, but it did not cause marked difference in SID of these amino acids except for lysine. The low nutrient digestibility of the SBM sources used in the present experiment might have favoured the positive effect of β-mannanase supplementation.