Biotechnology of flavonoids and other phenylpropanoid-derived natural products. Part II: Reconstruction of multienzyme pathways in plants and microbes

Plant natural products derived from phenylalanine and the phenylpropanoid pathways are impressive in their chemical diversity and are the result of plant evolution, which has selected for the acquisition of large repertoires of pigments, structural and defensive compounds, all derived from a phenylpropanoid backbone via the plant-specific phenylpropanoid pathway. These compounds are important in plant growth, development and responses to environmental stresses and thus can have large impacts on agricultural productivity. While plant-based medicines containing phenylpropanoid-derived active components have long been used by humans, the benefits of specific flavonoids and other phenylpropanoid-derived compounds to human health and their potential for long-term health benefits have only been recognized more recently. In this part of the review, we discuss in detail the recent strategies and achievements used in the reconstruction of multienzyme pathways in plants and microbes in an effort to be able to attain higher amounts of the desired flavonoids and stilbenoids exploiting their beneficial properties as analyzed extensively in Part I of this review.     

Generic spatial classes for human health impacts, Part I:

A new method for the spatially differentiated assessment of impacts of airborne pollutants on human health is presented. It is applicable to primary pollutants with linear exposure response functions. This includes the most important primary air pollutants from transportation and energy generation. The article looks at the spatial differentiation of impacts due to emission height and the local population density distribution around the emission site, as has been predicted using a Gaussian plume model. The differentiation due to population density is captured by way of five generic spatial classes: large cities in agglomerations, highly densified districts in agglomerations, cities in urbanized regions, country average districts, and low density rural districts in rural regions. Average impacts are calculated for each class. The method is simple enough to be applied to a large number of emissions within Life Cycle Assessments. It was used to calculate site-dependent exposure efficiencies for a variety of primary pollutants emitted at different heights. For traffic emissions of pollutants with short atmospheric residence times, the exposure efficiencies vary by a factor of 5 across Germany and by a factor of 75 across Europe. This differentiation due to population density decreases significantly with an increasing atmospheric residence time of the pollutants and with an increasing emission height.     

Chemical and biological components of atmospheric particulate matter and their impacts on human health and crops: a review

Aerobiologia - This article provides a brief review of morphological features (MFs), chemical and biological aspects of particulate matters (PMs) and their effects on humans and crops. Based on...     

茂名大雾岭中次生林植被蚯蚓多样性的空间特征

在样方调查的基础上,研究大雾岭天然次生林中大田顶、茄顶两座山东、南、西、北四个坡向植物多样性、蚯蚓多样性和土壤有机质含量。结果表明:大雾岭天然次生林1)乔木总数以南坡偏低,在大田顶、茄顶南坡分别0Ind·m^-2和0.06Ind·m^-2;各坡向乔木Shannon-Weaver指数在0～2.24之间,Margalef指数在0～3.15之间,乔木多样性指数没有坡向差异;2)灌木总数没有坡向差异,灌木多样性指数南坡最低,Shannon-Weaver指数与Margalef指数在大田顶南坡分别为1.52和1.70,在茄顶南坡则分别为2.05和2.33;3)草本植物总数以南坡最高,在大田顶、茄顶南坡分别有87Ind·m^-2与244Ind·m^-2;草本植物多样性指数以南坡较高,其中Shannon-Weaver指数与Margalef指数在大田顶南坡分别为2.46与3.36;4)蚯蚓总数以南坡偏低,在大田顶与茄顶分别为7Ind·m^-2和0Ind·m^-2;各坡向蚯蚓Shannon-Weaver指数在0～1.63之间,Margalef指数在0～2.20之间,蚯蚓多样性指数没有坡向差异:5)土壤有机质无坡向差异,各坡向离地面50cm以内的土壤有机质含量在11.2～40.6%,离地面0.5～1m的有机质含量在5.6～17.5%。由于生物资源分布有坡向差异,因此在天然次生林管理时可根据不同的坡向选择相应的开发或保护模式。     

Influence of manufacturing variables on the characteristics and effectiveness of chitosan products. I. Chemical composition,viscosity, and molecular-weight distribution of chitosan products

Ten chitosan products were manufactured from dry shrimp hulls under differing process conditions and compared to a commercially available product. Manufacturing variables tested were: alkali versus enzymatic deproteination; acid demineralization versus no treatment; air versus nitrogen atmosphere; 5 min vs. 15 min deacetylation period: and varying the particle size of the dry starting material. Deproteination by alkali of enzymatic extraction did not substantially affect the nitrogen and ash compositions of dry chitosan samples. However, the viscosity was reduced in samples deproteinated by enzymatic hydrolysis. Elimination of the demineralization step resulted in products having 31–36% ash, as expected. Some differences in viscosity were observed between deminiralized and undemineralized samples, but on important differences in the molecular-weight distribution of these samples were evident. Purging the reaction vessel with nitrogen resulted in chitosan preparations having higher viscosities and molecular-weight distributions than those prepared in an air atmosphere. The degradative effect of air became more proshrimp hulls to 1 mm prior to any treatment resulted in a chitosan product of both higher viscosity and molecular weight than when ground to either 2 or 6.4 mm. Viscosity was not always a direct indicator of molecular weight, for although the presence of colloidal particles increased the viscosity of some samples, the molecular-weight distribution after filtration was essentially the same as in other less viscous samples.     

The Life-Cycle of Chlorine, Part I: Chlorine Production and the Chlorine-Mercury Connection

Chlorine is an important industrial chemical. Not only is it a component of many important products, it is also needed for many chemical manufacturing processes, even where it does not appear in the final product. But a number of chlorine chemicals, especially organochlorines, are toxic, carcinogenic, tentogenic or otherwise potentially disturbing to the environment. For this reason, some environmentalists—notably Greenpeace-have advocated a ban, not just on some products but on all uses of elemental chlorine. The chemical industry is taking this threat seriously and mounting a vigorous defense. But the debate so far is not illuminating the issues effectively, because both sides are selectively using questionable and unverifiable data.
The scientific uncertainties are not really the problem. Rather, data in the public domain and accessible to environmentalists and even regulatory authorities are of very poor qualrty. Because of industry secrecy much crucial inforrnation is unavailable and some of what is available is misleading or wrong. The dual purposes of this article, and the ones that follow, are (I) to elucidate the information requirements for an adequate life-cycle analysis of chlorine and its uses and (2) to indicate how and where the use of massbalance methodology can help identify errors and fill in gaps.
The present article deals with electrolytic chlorine produdion and mercury flows arising from chlorine production. Subsequent articles deal with conversion processes and losses and further chemical industry uses of chlorine, major end uses of chlorine and chlorine chemicals, and persistent organochlorine pollutants.     

Influence of the glass packing on the contamination of pharmaceutical products by aluminium. Part I: salts, glucose, heparin and albumin.

The presence of aluminium (Al) in pharmaceutical products used parenterally as sodium and potassium chlorides, glucose, heparin and albumin were investigated with respect to their storage in glass containers. As glasses can have aluminium in their composition, the aluminium may be released from the glass into the solution. The action of the substances above mentioned were investigated storing their solutions in glass and plastic containers, and measuring the aluminium in solution at determined time intervals. The aluminium present in the commercial pharmaceutical products, stored in both plastic and glass containers were also measured. All glass containers were analysed to determine their aluminium content. The aluminium determinations were done by atomic absorption spectrometry. The resuLts showed that aluminium is present in all analysed glasses in a percentage of 0.6 to 3%. Although all substances already have a residual aluminium contamination, the major contribution comes from the glass containers in which their solutions were stored. The contamination arising from glass depends too much on the nature of the substance. While the salts extracted about 400 microg Al/l in 60 days, glucose extracted 150 microg Al/l, and albumin and heparin about 500 microg Al/l in the same time interval. Commercial solutions of glucose contain about 10 microg Al/l when stored in polyethylene and from 350 to 1,000 microg Al/l when in glass ampules. Considering all commercial products, solutions stored in plastic containers contained no more than 20 microg Al/l whereas in glass the aluminium contamination reached 1,000 microg/l, and in all of them the aluminium increases with the age of the product.     

Influence of the glass packing on the contamination of pharmaceutical products by aluminum. Part I: Salts, glucose, heparin and albumin

The presence of aluminium (Al) in pharmaceutical products used parenterally as sodium and potassium chlorides, glucose, heparin and albumin were investigated with respect to their storage in glass containers. As glasses can have aluminium in their composition, the aluminium may be released from the glass into the solution. The action of the substances above mentioned were investigated storing their solutions in glass and plastic containers, and measuring the aluminium in solution at determined time intervals. The aluminium present in the commercial pharmaceutical products, stored in both plastic and glass containers were also measured. All glass containers were analysed to determine their aluminium content. The aluminium determinations were done by atomic absorption spectrometry. The results showed that aluminium is present in all analysed glasses in a percentage of 0.6 to 3%. Although all substances already have a residual aluminium contamination, the major contribution comes from the glass containers in which their solutions were stored. The contamination arising from glass depends too much on the nature of the substance. While the salts extracted about 400 μg Al/l in 60 days, glucose extracted 150 μg Al/l, and albumin and heparin about 500 μg Al/l in the same time interval. Commercial solutions of glucose contain about 10 μg Al/l when stored in polyethylene and from 350 to 1000 μg Al/l when in glass ampules. Considering all commercial products, solutions stored in plastic containers contained no more than 20 μg Al/l whereas in glass the aluminium contamination reached 1000 μg/l, and in all of them the aluminium increases with the age of the product.     

土壤植物营养与农产品品质及人畜健康关系

综述了土壤中Ca,Mg,S,Zn,Fe等中微量营养元素及Se,I等有益元素的丰缺情况,概述了矿质营养元素和有机物质对农产品品质的影响与人畜健康的关系,展望了今后应预以加强的研究方向,为进一步开展土壤植物营养与产品品质的研究提供参考。     

The enduring legacy of Koji Nakanishi's research on bioorganic chemistry and natural products. Part 1: Isolation,structure determination and mode of action

In this brief review on Koji Nakanishi's remarkable career in natural products chemistry, we have highlighted a number of his accomplishments that illustrate the broad diversity of his interests. These include the isolation, structure determination, and biological mechanism of action of many natural products including the triterpenoid pristimerin; the diterpenoid ginkgolides; insect and crustacean molting hormones; phytoalexins; the toxic red tide principle brevetoxin; the vanadium tunicate pigments; philanthotoxin from killer wasps; antisickling agents; mitomycin DNA adducts; insect antifeedants; a mitotic hormone, the small molecule fish attractants from the sea anemone; new isolation and purification technologies; molecular chemistry of vision; age-related macular degeneration; and the development of the exciton circular dichroism (CD) chirality method for microscale determination of absolute configuration of natural products and chirality of other chiral molecules and supramolecular assembly.     

The Life Cycle of Chlorine, Part II: Conversion Processes and Use in the European Chemical Industry

The major purpose of this article is to construct a plausible emissions profile for the European chemical industry from process data and mass balance considerations.' In it we describe this industry and its major conversion processes and emissions. Four major process chains, beginning with methane, ethylene, propylene, and benzene are analyzed, along with five important stand-alone processes. A self-consistent version of the industry is constructed for 1992, based on data from a variety of sources.
In 1992 Europe consumed 9,297 metric kilotons as measured by weight of chlorine (kMT[CI]) of salt and 2 I I kMT(CI) of recycled hydrochloric acid (HCI) to produce 86 I0 kMT of virgin elemental chlorine, plus 278 kMT(CI) of virgin by-product HCI. Total chlorine input to the industry was 8,689 kMT including I2 kMT(CI) of recycled chlorinated hydrocarbons (CHCs) and (net) 79 kMT(CI) of HCI. Shipments of chlorine and HCI to other sectors was 1,367 kMT(CI), while 7,322 kMT(CI) was embodied in products or lost within the sector: Of this subtotal, 350 kMT(CI) was used to manufacture identified inorganic chemicals, 5,694 kMT(CI) for identified organic chemicals, and 1,278 kMT(CI) for "other unspecified" chemicals.
We estimate that products account for 41.6% of inputs (measured at the "fence"), while wastes account for 24.7%     

The potential impacts of climate change on inshore squid: biology, ecology and fisheries

Squid are important components of many marine ecosystems from the poles to the equator, serving as both important predators and prey. Novel aspects of their growth and reproduction mean that they are likely to play an important role in the changing oceans due to climate change. Virtually every facet of squid life-history examined thus far has revealed an incredible capacity in this group for life-history plasticity. The extremely fast growth rates of individuals and rapid rates of turnover at the population level mean that squid can respond quickly to environmental or ecosystem change. Their ‘life-in-the-fast-lane’ life-style allows them to rapidly exploit ‘vacuums’ created in the ecosystem when predators or competitors are removed. In this way, they function as ‘weeds of the sea’. Elevated temperatures accelerate the life-histories of squid, increasing their growth rates and shortening their life-spans. At first glance, it would be logical to suggest that rising water temperatures associated with climate change (if food supply remains adequate) would be beneficial to inshore squid populations and fisheries—growth rates would increase, life spans would shorten and population turnover would accelerate. However, the response of inshore squid populations to climate change is likely to be extremely complex. The size of hatchlings emerging from the eggs becomes smaller as temperatures increase and hatchling size may have a critical influence on the size-at-age that may be achieved as adults and subsequently, population structure. The influence of higher temperatures on the egg and adult stages may thus be opposing forces on the life-history. The process of climate change will likely result in squids that hatch out smaller and earlier, undergo faster growth over shorter life-spans and mature younger and at a smaller size. Individual squid will require more food per unit body size, require more oxygen for faster metabolisms and have a reduced capacity to cope without food. It is therefore likely that biological, physiological and behavioural changes in squid due to climate change will have far reaching effects.     

On the importance of patch attributes, environmental factors and past human impacts as determinants of perennial plant species richness and diversity in Mediterranean semiarid steppes

Richness and diversity of perennial plant species were evaluated in 17 Stipa tenacissima steppes along a degradation gradient in semiarid SE Spain. The main objective of the study was to evaluate the relative importance of historical human impacts, small‐scale patch attributes and environmental factors as determinants of perennial plant species richness and diversity in S. tenacissima steppes, where vegetation is arranged as discrete plant patches inserted on a bare ground matrix. Partial least squares regression was used to determine the amount of variation in species richness and diversity that could be significantly explained by historical human impacts, patch attributes, and environmental factors together and separately. They explained up to 89% and 69% of the variation in species richness and diversity, respectively. In both cases, the predictive power of patch attributes models was higher than that of models consisting of abiotic characteristics and variables related to human impact, suggesting that patch attributes are the major determinants of species richness and diversity in semiarid S. tenacissima steppes. However, patch attributes alone are not enough to explain the observed variation in species richness and diversity. The area covered by late‐successional sprouting shrubs and the distance between consecutive patches were the most influencing individual variables on species richness and diversity, respectively. The implications of these results for the management of S. tenacissima steppes are discussed.     

喀斯特天然林植物多样性指数和土壤理化指标的相关性

植物多样性的土壤生态系统功能是喀斯特生态学研究的热点之一。在贵州省茂兰国家级自然保护区不同功能区(干扰等级)内采用野外样地调查和实验室分析相结合的方法,分析了41个喀斯特森林样地的植物多样性指数和土壤理化指标值的变化规律与相关性。结果表明:(1)依据乔木层物种重要值聚类法划分的5个喀斯特森林类型包括小叶栾树-青冈栎林、香叶树-枫香林、香椿-香叶树林、灯台-小花梾木林和檵木-马尾松林,由核心区、缓冲区、实验区至外缘区,乔木层植物多样性指数、林地岩石裸露率、土壤蓄水量、肥力及养分指标呈降低趋势。(2)因子分析表明不同层片植物多样性和不同土层土壤理化因子的相关趋势性各异。相关显著的因子对数量率呈乔木灌木草本的趋势,乔木植物多样性因子起主导作用。(3)喀斯特森林乔木层植物多样性指数和土壤理化指标的相关性分3种类型。直线型是植物多样性指数和土壤理化指标值相关性中较普遍的一类,相应指标对数量率为39.84%;曲线型是植物多样性指数和土壤理化指标值相关性中机理较复杂的一类,相应指标对数量率为46.10%,其中植物多样性指数有拐点值无生态意义的指标对数量率为11.72%,有拐点值有生态意义且呈先降后升、或先升后降趋势的指标对数量率分别为17.19%;无关型是植物多样性指数和土壤理化指标值相关性不显著,相应指标对数量率为54.69%。(4)喀斯特地区水土资源管理为目标的营林措施中,天然林乔木层植物多样性指数对土壤物理、肥力和养分指标响应的拐点值可成为人工造林中物种数量与株数比例选择的参考依据之一。     

Pyrolysis of plant, animal and human waste: physical and chemical characterization of the pyrolytic products

Pyrolysis (carbonization) has been proposed as one of several optional technologies for disposing and recycling waste products in Japan. Plant wastes (sugarcane bagasse and rice husks), animal waste (cow biosolids) and human waste (treated municipal sludge) were pyrolyzed at temperatures from 250–800 °C in closed containers. The carbonized materials were evaluated for specific physical properties (yield, surface area, density) and specific chemical properties (total carbon, total nitrogen, pH, fixed carbon, ash content, volatility) in order to compare differences in properties among the four waste products. The results indicated that (1) surface area, total carbon, ash content and pH increased as the carbonization temperature increased, while carbonization yield decreased with increasing temperature, (2) product density however was not affected by temperature and (3) correlation coefficients were determined among the physical and chemical properties and several significant correlations were observed. The data indicate that source material had considerable influence on the physical and chemical properties of the carbonized products.