Distribution of Leguminosae tree species in different altitudinal levels along the Atlantic Rain Forest in the Brazilian coast

The Atlantic Forest is one of the most threatened tropical forests in the world. Leguminosae, by its great richness and dominance among arboreal stratum elements, is of major importance in the floristic composition and structure of this forest. We investigated the distribution of legume species on an altitudinal gradient to find out the altitudinal zones with higher richness of species; the altitudinal zones with greater floristic similarity; the possible presence of species that may be exclusive to certain vegetation types and the altitudinal amplitudes of those species, as well as the occurrence of species substitution along the altitudinal gradient. Therefore, thirty one studies conducted in different altitudinal levels between 5° S and 29° S were analyzed. A matrix with 142 tree species distributed in altitudinal zones (every 100 m) from sea level to 2100 m was built. The greatest species richness was observed in the Submontane Forest (50–500 m) with 92 species. The cluster analysis revealed a strong dissimilarity of the 1400–2100 m (Upper Montane) and 0–10 m zones (Restinga Forest). The Submontane and the Montane Forest share the highest number of species (38 ssp.). Forty species are unique to Submontane. Substitution of species was verified. Some species have their preferred habitat located at a specific altitudinal amplitude, as is the case of Inga laurina and I. subnuda (0–10 m), I. lanceifolia and Machaerium scleroxylon (800–1200 m). The Leguminosae, although well adapted to the first colonization and establishment of diverse environment, was poorly represented above 1500 m altitude.     

Resilient forest faunal communities in South Africa: a legacy of palaeoclimatic change and extinction filtering?

Aim To examine the influence of climatic extinction filtering during the last glacial maximum (LGM; c. 18,000 yr bp ) and of the subsequent recolonization of forest faunas on contemporary assemblage composition in southern African forests. Location South Africa, Mozambique, Swaziland, Zimbabwe. Methods Data comprised presence/absence by quarter‐degree grid cell for forest‐dependent and forest‐associated birds, non‐volant mammals and frogs. Twenty‐one forest subregions were assigned to one of three previously identified forest types: Afrotemperate, scarp, and Indian Ocean coastal belt. Differences among forest types were examined through patterns and gradients of species richness and endemism, assemblage similarity, species turnover, and coefficients of species dispersal direction. The influence of contemporary environment on assemblage composition was investigated using partial canonical correspondence analysis. Several alternative biogeographical hypotheses for the recolonization of forest faunas were tested. Results Afrotemperate faunas are relatively species‐poor, have low species turnover, and are unsaturated and infiltrated by generalist species. In northern and central regions, communities are supplemented by recolonization from scarp forest refugia, and among frogs by autochthanous speciation in localized refugia. Scarp faunas are relatively species‐rich, contain many forest‐dependent species, have high species turnover, and overlap with coastal and Afrotemperate faunas. Coastal forests are relatively species‐rich with high species turnover. Main conclusions Afrotemperate communities were affected most by climatic extinction filtering events. Scarp forests were Afrotemperate refugia during the LGM and are a contemporary overlap zone between Afrotemperate and coastal forest. Coastal faunas derive from post‐LGM colonization along the eastern seaboard from tropical East African refugia. The greatest diversity is achieved in scarp and coastal forest faunas in northern KwaZulu–Natal province. This historical centre of diversity has influenced the faunal diversity of nearly all other forests in South Africa. The response of vertebrate taxa to large‐scale, historical processes is dependent on their relative mobility: forest birds best illustrate patterns resulting from post‐glacial faunal dispersal, while among mammals and frogs the legacy of climatic extinction filtering remains stronger.     

Evidence for altitudinal migration of forest birds between montane Eastern Arc and lowland forests in East Africa

Burgess, N.D. & Mlingwa, C.O.F. 2000. Evidence for altitudinal migration of forest birds between montane Eastern Arc and lowland forests in East Africa. Ostrich 71 (1 & 2): 184–190.

In this paper we assess the evidence for altitudinal movements of forest birds from the montane forests of the Eastern Arc mountains of East Africa to nearby lowland forest patches. For 34 montane species, including all the Eastern Arc endemics except Banded Green Sunbird Anthreptes rubritorques there is no evidence that they undertake seasonal movements to lower altitudes. An additional 26 montane species, of somewhat wider distribution, have been recorded at low (<500 m) altitudes during the cold/dry season (June to September). Most records of these montane birds at lower altitudes are from sites adjoining montane forest areas, although a few records are from lowland coastal forests at 100–240 km distance from montane areas. Only five of the 26 species (White-chested Alethe Alethe fulleborni, White-starred Forest Robin Pogonocichla stellata, Orange Ground Thrush Zoothera gurneyi, Evergreen Forest Warbler Bradypterus mariae and Barred Long-tailed Cuckoo Cercococcyx montanus) are regularly and commonly reported in the lowlands. They are also found in the lowlands in small numbers during the warm/wet season (October to February), when they may breed. The abundance of at least four, and probably more, of the forest birds with a more widespread distribution in the lowland and montane forests of East Africa declines greatly at high altitudes from the onset of the cold/wet season (February) and only increases again at the start of the warm/wet season (September). It is not known how far these species move as they cannot be easily separated from resident populations in lowland forests, and there are no ringing recoveries in different forests. Altitudinal migration of a proportion of the Eastern Arc avifauna is the most likely explanation for available data, although source-sink metapopulation theories may be helpful to explain the distributions of some species. As the movement of forest birds from the Eastern Arc to the lowland forests does not involve the rare endemics, they are of lower conservation concern, but the presence of montane and lowland forest may be important for the long-term survival of some more widely distributed forest species.     

Distribution patterns of flora and fauna in southern Chilean Coastal rain forests: Integrating Natural History and GIS

Knowledge of species richness centers is necessary for the design of conservation areas. In this study, we present a GIS analysis of two years of field data on animal and plant diversity distributions in evergreen, coastal rain forests of southern Chile (39°30′–41°25′ S). Despite their high endemism, these forests have remained largely unprotected. Field records were complemented with data from museum collections and scientific literature. We used selected environmental variables (evapotranspiration, altitude) and, in some cases, forest types as predictors of species distributions. Our study focused on the distribution of forest bryophytes, vascular plants, soil invertebrates, amphibians and birds. We generated distributional maps for each taxa based on their field records in the study area, complemented by natural history information, except in the case of bryophytes and soil invertebrates. In general, species richness was lower at 600 m elevation or above for all the taxa studied. Species richness tends to increase in the northern sector of the study area. We observed a greater richness of vascular plants near rivers and streams, and noted important floristic differences between west and east-facing slopes of the Coastal Range, with more species in the oriental side. Because species in high altitude forests are not a subset of those found at lower elevations, we propose that conservation strategies should prioritize the protection of the entire altitudinal gradient of the southern Coastal Range, especially in the more diverse oriental and northern sectors.     

Priority areas for the conservation of subtropical indigenous forest in southern Africa: a case study from KwaZulu-Natal

Southern Africa's subtropical forest biome, though small and highly fragmented, supports much of the region's biodiversity. With limited resources available for conservation and the exploitative use of forest escalating, identifying a network of priority forest reserves is important. We examine the distribution of forest birds, butterflies and mammals in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. Using an iterative algorithm we explore the efficiency of existing protected areas, species richness and rarity hotspots, prime forest sites (selected by forest area) and complementary networks as alternative approaches to priority reserve selection, as well as the potential use of indicator taxa. Existing protected areas represent 98% of species but are relatively inefficient in terms of area. Alternative selection criteria represent a high proportion of species (86–92%) and provide efficient bases for developing fully representative reserve networks. All species are represented within a network of 22 complementary quarter degree cells. This network includes several larger forests and existing protected areas and is recommended for priority conservation. Complementary networks identified separately for birds, butterflies and mammals overlap little, but each represents a high proportion of the remaining taxa, supporting their potential as representative 'indicator' taxa. The evolutionary history of the three main forest types in KwaZulu-Natal explains observed spatial patterns of alternative reserve networks. Priority areas are concentrated in scarp and coastal forest belts, regions of comparatively recent evolutionary activity with high species richness. Afromontane forest is older and less diverse, but its inclusion in any reserve network is necessary for the full representation of forest diversity.     

Use of species richness estimators improves evaluation of understory plant response to logging: a study of redwood forests

The recovery of native understory plant communities after timber harvest has received a great amount of attention worldwide. However, most of these studies have ignored the potentially significant effects that differences in habitat across forest development may have on the species–area relationship, even though sampling efficacy among forest developmental stages may differ markedly as a result of equal sampling within stages. We examined vascular plant community structure in coastal redwood forests of northern California (USA) in forest patches in each of four forest stages that develop with forest age: Initiation, Closure, Mature, and Old-growth. We also used a set of traditional and novel approaches to assess sampling efficacy and guide our sampling design. We initially sampled 75 circular plots (0.04 ha) in stands within each forest stage across a 1,347 km² area. The species–area relationship suggested we had adequately sampled all stages after the first season of data collection, but non-parametric richness estimators (Incidence-based Coverage Estimator or ICE) and Michaelis–Menten means (MMMeans) rarefaction curves, indicated inadequate sampling of the older stages. Thus, we added four more samples within the Old-growth forest stage, establishing a more equitable sample of all stages. Our full data set demonstrated significant differences between plant communities in previously harvested forests (‘managed’ = Initiation, Closure, and Mature) and ‘unmanaged’ forests (Old-growth). Though several understory species were present in all stages, a suite of Old-growth indicator and restricted species suggest that recovery of some species may take long periods in managed forests. Interestingly, a separate suite of common understory species were lacking in Old-growth, and species richness in this stage was lower than in the mature managed forests. We discuss how this departure from the prediction of peak richness in Old-growth may relate to fire suppression in Old-growth forests. Lastly, analysis of our initial, smaller sampling of plots suggested that Old-growth plots were the least species rich. However, additional sampling of the Old-growth stage demonstrated that Old-growth plots were as rich as Closure plots. This has important implications for all studies concerned with measuring recovery after forest disturbances; stage-dependent habitat-mediated differences that affect sampling efficacy may not be captured by traditional sampling methods.     

Avian diversity in a Kenyan agroecosystem: effects of habitat structure and proximity to forest

Tropical agroecosystems cover an increasingly large proportion of the Earth’s terrestrial surface. Yet, relatively little is known about the factors that influence their avifauna, especially in areas of high human population density. The potential of tropical farmland for sustaining bird biodiversity, including forest birds, can be influenced by habitat structure and the distance from the nearest forest. We investigated the effect of these two factors on the bird community in the farmland near Kakamega Forest, Kenya. Using point counts, we assessed the number of bird species and individuals on 56 study plots in distances up to about 2,100 m from the forest. We observed a total of 96 bird species in the farmland, 22 of which were forest, 58 shrub-land, and 16 open-country species. High vertical vegetation heterogeneity and a large number of woody plant individuals were related to high species richness of forest and shrub-land birds, whereas open-country birds avoided such areas. The species richness and total number of forest birds declined with increasing distance to the forest. A comparison with the bird community within Kakamega Forest indicated that only a fraction of the forest species could be sustained in the farmland. This suggests that agroecosystems with a diverse habitat structure can support a high diversity of birds, but have only a limited capacity to compensate for forest loss. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.     

Introduction by the Chairman

Tropical forest ecosystems are the world's richest and most complex habitats and globally recognised for their importance in the human survival. Birds constitute an important component of tropical forests, not only in terms of their diversity, but also in terms of their role in the ecosystem. However, despite great advances made in our knowledge and protection of tropical forest birds, our efforts remain inadequate, particularly in Africa. African forests are being cut down by a very high rate (4 million hectare disappearing per year), putting at risk so many bird species, that the first challenge for research and conservation is to help managers in identifying priorities.

The relationship emphasised by the theme of the PAOC 9 “Birds, Habitats and People” is well examined during the symposium on the “Conservation of Forest Birds in Afiica”. The papers presented cover a wide range of topics. A broad scale analysis on the congruence between forest birds and mammals (Neil et al.) compares species richness and species endemism in the Afrotropical region. Larison et al. compare avian biodiversity of montane forest birds of northern Cameroon and Bioko island and evaluate their conservation potential based on species richness and human impacts and attitudes. A similar approach is done by Waiyaki and Bennun on birds of coastal forests in southern Kenya, while Math et al. examine the distribution the east Coast Akalat Sheppardia gunningi sokokensis in one single forest of Arabuko-Sokoke. The major threat to tropical forests today is the selective logging. The effect of this issue is presented by Dranzoa in a case study from Uganda's Kibale National Park.

Results of these papers show the necessity to take into account the particular requirements of all species in the management of the forest, the socio-cultural considerations in implementation of conservation measures, the necessity of policy changes in some cases and the necessity of further research.     

Disentangling vegetation and climate as drivers of Australian vertebrate richness

Determining drivers of species richness is recognised as highly complex, involving many synergies and interactions. We examine the utility of newly available remote sensing representations of vegetation productivity and vegetation structure to examine drivers of species richness at continental and regional scales. We related richness estimates derived from stacked species distribution models for birds, mammals, amphibians, and reptiles to estimates of actual and potential evapotranspiration (AET and PET), forest structure, and forest productivity across Australia as a whole as well as by bioclimatic zones. We used structural equation modeling to partition correlations between climate energy and vegetation attributes and their subsequent associations with species richness. Continentally, vertebrate richness patterns were strongly related to patterns of energy availability. Richness of amphibians, mammals, and birds were positively associated with AET. However, reptile richness was most strongly associated with PET. Regionally, forest structure and productivity associations with bird, mammal, and amphibian richness were strongest. Again, reptile richness associated most strongly with PET. Our results suggest that a hierarchy of drivers of broad‐scale vertebrate richness patterns exist (reptiles excluded): 1) climate energy is most important at the continental scale; next, 2) vegetation productivity and vegetation structure are most important at the regional scale; except 3) at low extremes of climate energy when energy becomes limiting.     

Seasonal variation in diversity and abundance of understorey birds in Bunduki Forest Reserve,Tanzania: evaluating the conservation value of a plantation forest

Plantation forests generally support lower bird diversity than natural forests. However, in some instances the plantations have been found to provide suitable habitat for a number of bird species. In the Eastern Arc Mountains, there is limited knowledge how understorey birds, some of which make seasonal altitudinal movements, use plantations. Using mist netting we assessed seasonal use of the plantation forest by the understorey bird community in Bunduki Forest Reserve in the Uluguru Mountains. Species diversity and capture rates were significantly higher during the cold season than during the hot season possibly due to seasonal altitudinal migration by some species. The use of plantations by those species that make seasonal altitudinal movements shows that plantation forests can enhance indigenous biodiversity by enabling connectivity between two or more natural forest patches. Our findings suggest that in a situation where there is no natural forest, an exotic plantation with suitable indigenous understorey cover can help in protection of birds, including endemic and near-endemic species.     

Reptile, amphibian, and lemur diversity of the Malahelo Forest, a biogeographical transition zone in southeastern Madagascar

Ambatorongorongo Mountain lies at the historical intersection betweenhumid, spiny, and littoral forests in southeastern Madagascar. We report theresults of surveys of the herpetofauna and lemurs occurring in Malahelo Forest,a small (<25 ha) forest fragment lying on the western slope ofAmbatorongorongo Mountain. There are at least 41 reptile, 11 amphibian, and 7lemur species in this forest, including several that are endemic to southeasternMadagascar and are at severe risk of extinction. The species richness of theMalahelo fauna is comparable to that of even the largest forest reserves in theregion. We also evaluate the similarity of the Malahelo herpetofauna to that ofnearby humid, spiny, and littoral forests to assess the biogeographic affinitiesof its amphibians and reptile assemblages. Both groups contain speciescharacteristic of each of the three surrounding forest types, but thebiogeographic patterns appear to differ for amphibians and reptiles. Overall,the herpetofauna and lemurs of the Malahelo Forest indicate that it is a remnantof a biogeographic transition zone between the major forest types ofsoutheastern Madagascar. The combination of high species richness, regionalendemics, and unique herpetofaunal and lemur assemblages should make MalaheloForest a high conservation priority, and we give recommendations for protectingwhat remains of this important transitional forest.     

The effects of land-use change on arthropod richness and abundance on Santa Maria Island (Azores): unmanaged plantations favour endemic beetles

We study how endemic, native and introduced arthropod species richness, abundance, diversity and community composition vary between four different habitat types (native forest, exotic forest of Cryptomeria japonica, semi-natural pasture and intensive pasture) and how arthropod richness and abundance change with increasing distance from the native forest in adjacent habitat types in Santa Maria Island, the Azores. Arthropods were sampled in four 150 m long transects in each habitat type. Arthropods were identified to species level and classified as Azorean endemic, single-island endemic (SIE), native, or introduced. The native forest had the highest values for species richness of Azorean endemics, SIEs and natives; and also had highest values of Azorean endemic diversity (Fisher’s alpha). In contrast, the intensive pasture had the lowest values for endemic and native species richness and diversity, but the highest values of total arthropod abundance and introduced species richness and diversity. Arthropod community composition was significantly different between the four habitat types. In the semi-natural pasture, the number of SIE species decreased with increasing distance from the native forest, and in the exotic forest the abundance of both Azorean endemics and SIEs decreased with increasing distance from the native forest. There is a gradient of decreasing arthropod richness and abundance from the native forest to the intensive pasture. Although this study demonstrates the important role of the native forest in arthropod conservation in the Azores, it also shows that unmanaged exotic forests have provided alternative habitat suitable for some native species of forest specialist arthropods, particularly saproxylic beetles.     

Genetic insights into the historical distribution of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Polylepis pauta</Emphasis> (Rosaceae) in the northeastern Cordillera Oriental of Ecuador

Scattered patches of Polylepis forest that occur within the 3,000–4,500 m altitudinal belt of the Andean Cordillera from Venezuela to Argentina have been hypothesized to be remnants of once continuous forests whose range became fragmented through anthropogenic activities that probably preceded the Spanish conquest. Allozyme variation of Polylepis pauta from 12 forest populations in three adjacent watersheds in Northeastern Ecuador was investigated to assess whether observed patterns of gene diversity were consistent with a more continuous historical range of the species and to evaluate the populations’ potential for restoration. Genetic diversity and polymorphism in P. pauta populations were higher than mean values for most wind pollinated and dispersed temperate and tropical tree species with regional distributions. Genetic differentiation among watersheds was lower than among populations within each watershed. Isolation by distance was not evident and several populations from different watersheds were more genetically similar than populations from the same watershed. Larger forest patches with broader altitudinal ranges had more alleles. Forest patches on steeper slopes and at higher elevations supported populations with less genetic diversity; this might have resulted from the predominance of vegetative reproduction in these landslide prone areas. The amount of genetic diversity maintained by P. pauta, coupled with low genetic differentiation among populations within and among watersheds, is consistent with a more continuous historical range of the species in Northeastern Ecuador and point to the Oyacachi basin as having the highest levels of genetic diversity.     

长白山溪流河岸带森林木本植物多样性沿海拔梯度分布规律

采用样带网格调查方法和α、β多样性指数分析方法,研究了长白山河岸带原始林和次生林群落木本植物多样性沿海拔梯度分布规律及其对采伐干扰的响应.结果表明：不同海拔区域河岸带原始林群落均由11～13个树种组成,其在群落中的地位随海拔升高而发生变化,阔叶树种优势地位逐步被针叶树种所取代,采伐干扰不仅改变了群落树种丰富度及其在群落中的地位,而且使针叶树种取代阔叶树种的趋势有所增强;河岸带原始林群落物种多样性沿海拔梯度呈现出中、低海拔区域相对较高且比较恒定(2.454～2.544),高海拔区域(2.250)下降的分布规律,采伐干扰改变了其沿海拔梯度分布格局(波动型),加大了不同海拔区域群落间的波动性(2.174～2.692);河岸带原始林群落树种沿海拔梯度的变动速率相对较低(1.5～3.5),且群落相似性较高(0.85～0.94),采伐干扰使次生林群落树种沿海拔梯度的变动幅度增大(0.5～6.0),群落相似性下降(0.68～0.91),但次生林群落沿海拔梯度分布仍具有较高连续性.     

Environment–richness relationships for mammals,birds, reptiles,and amphibians at global and regional scales

Climate has been routinely indicated as a major determinant of broad-scale species richness patterns for a variety of taxa, but studies vary widely in attributing richness variation to the broad-scale distribution of energy, water, ecosystem productivity, habitat heterogeneity, or some combination thereof. Here, I report global and regional environment–richness relationships for the four classes of terrestrial vertebrates (mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians) using identical sample units and the same set of climate (temperature, precipitation, annual actual evapotranspiration), productivity (normalized difference vegetation index), and topographic (elevation range) variables. My results strongly support concomitant availability of energy and water as the principal constraint on global richness for all vertebrate groups except reptiles, which are largely constrained by temperature. However, environment–richness models for all taxonomic groups varied widely when applied to single (continental-scale) biogeographic realms. In particular, I found strong support for the ‘water–energy dynamics hypothesis’ that models richness as a function of ambient energy (temperature) in high latitudes and water availability (precipitation) at low latitudes, partially independent of productivity. Ectotherm groups were more constrained by temperature than endotherms, and amphibians were more constrained by water availability than other groups. Although habitat heterogeneity, measured as elevation range, was a consistent contributor to global and regional richness models for all groups, its contribution was always minor compared to other variables. I conclude that temperature and water availability are key variables for modeling broad-scale vertebrate richness, but there remains significant room for taxon-specific modeling approaches and for the inclusion of non-climate factors related to evolutionary history and faunal assembly in different regions.     

Vegetation structure along the altitudinal gradient at the treeline of Mount Paektu,North Korea

Vegetation structure of the treeline was studied on the southeastern slope of Mount Paektu (North Korea). Fifteen temporary plots (20m×20m) were situated along the altitudinal transect. Seven square samples (phytosociological relevés 5 m×5 m) were analyzed in each plot. Although the character of the vegetation was rather continuous altitudinally, five similar groups of vegetation samples were distinguished by the TWINSPAN procedure. The distribution of samples in the classification showed not only the effect of altitude but also the effect of competition between the tree and the shrub layers and other factors. In the canonical correspondence analysis (CCA) ordination several environmental variables were used (such as altitude of each plot, distance of each plot from the forest edge and the cover percentage of tree, shrub, herb and moss/lichen layers). The variable ‘cover of tree layer’ had the strongest relation to the species data. Continuous changes of species richness along the altitude were confirmed. Species richness decreased significantly with altitude.     

Shade cacao plantations (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Theobroma cacao</Emphasis>) and bat conservation in southern Bahia,Brazil

Nearly 40% of the remaining Atlantic Forest in southern Bahia state, Brazil, is a rustic agroforest of cacao (Theobroma cacao). These traditional shade plantations, locally known as ‘cabrucas’, are habitats for forest dwelling species. Here we investigated the potential role of this traditional crop as a support for bat assemblages in southern Bahia, establishing the extent to which the bat community structure found in this agricultural system is influenced by the proximity of forest tracts. We compared the bat community attributes (richness, diversity and dominance) and species-level response (capture frequency) between native forest tracts and shade cacao plantations located in two distinct landscapes, which varied in total amount of forest (patch sizes and total forested area) and in their proximity to forest tracts. The cabrucas contiguous to forest tracts showed a rich and abundant bat community, with samples showing capture rates, species richness, diversity and evenness significantly higher than those reported for forest tracts. This situation changes, however, when shade plantations are located at some distance from forest tracts ( > 1000 m). Bat communities in these isolated cabrucas are less diverse than those found in forests and nearby cabrucas, but in both cases, species usually associated with pristine habitats were found. These findings suggest that cabrucas per se are not forest surrogates, and their potential to harbor forest dwelling bat species is closely linked with the existence of nearby forest tracts that may act as a source for species populations. Therefore, the entire landscape should be considered for management, taking into account that maintenance of cabrucas together with the preservation and restoration of forest patches is probably direly needed if one wishes to conserve the bat diversity in southern Bahia for the long term.     

The historical bridge between the Amazon and the Atlantic Forest of Brazil: a study of molecular phylogeography with small mammals

Abstract Aim To examine how the genetic diversity of selected taxa of forest‐dwelling small mammals is distributed between and within the major rain forest domains of Amazonia and Atlantic Forest and the intervening interior forests of Brazil, as inferred by the relationships between gene genealogies and geography. I also addressed the historical importance of the central Brazilian forests in connecting Amazon and Atlantic Forest populations of rodents and marsupials. Methods I evaluated variation in the mitochondrial cytochrome b gene to estimate the levels of sequence divergence between those taxa occurring throughout the Amazon, Atlantic Forest, and forests in the Cerrado and Caatinga regions. I inferred the hierarchical relationships between haplotypes, populations and formal taxa using the cladistic approach of maximum parsimony. I compared areas and the clades identified by superimposing cladograms on the geographical distribution of samples. The degree of concordance both in phylogeny and the depth of the nodes in these phylogenies, in addition to patterns of geographical distribution of clades, permitted me to make inferences on how, when and where the taxa differentiated. Results Sequence similarity is often greater between samples from the Atlantic Forest and either Amazon or central Brazilian forests than it is within each of the two rain forest domains. The Atlantic Forest clades are either not reciprocally monophyletic or are the sister group to all the other clades. There is some indication of northern and southern components in the Atlantic Forest. Given the geographical distribution of clades and the relatively deep levels of divergence, the central Brazilian area does not behave as a separate region but is complementary to either Amazon or Atlantic Forest. Patterns of area relationships differ across taxa, suggesting that different processes and/or historic events affected the diversification within each lineage. Main conclusions The Amazon and the Atlantic forests are not exclusive in terms of their small mammal faunas; both overlap broadly with taxa occurring in gallery forests and dry forests in central Brazil. Central Brazilian forests are an integral part of the evolutionary scenario of lowland small mammals, playing an important role as present and past habitats for rain forest species. Therefore, representatives from this area should always be included in analyses of the evolutionary history of lowland rain forest faunas. The incongruence of branching patterns among areas is in agreement with recent results presented for Neotropical passerine birds and indicates that a single hypothesis of Neotropical area relationships is unlikely. These findings reinforce the idea that speciation in the Neotropics will not be explained by any single model of vicariance or climatic changes.     

Disturbances, elevation, topography and spatial proximity drive vegetation patterns along an altitudinal gradient of a top biodiversity hotspot

The correlation between vegetation patterns (species distribution and richness) and altitudinal variation has been widely reported for tropical forests, thereby providing theoretical basis for biodiversity conservation. However, this relationship may have been oversimplified, as many other factors may influence vegetation patterns, such as disturbances, topography and geographic distance. Considering these other factors, our primary question was: is there a vegetation pattern associated with substantial altitudinal variation (10–1,093 m a.s.l.) in the Atlantic Rainforest—a top hotspot for biodiversity conservation—and, if so, what are the main factors driving this pattern? We addressed this question by sampling 11 1-ha plots, applying multivariate methods, correlations and variance partitioning. The Restinga (forest on sandbanks along the coastal plains of Brazil) and a lowland area that was selectively logged 40 years ago were floristically isolated from the other plots. The maximum species richness (>200 spp. per hectare) occurred at approximately 350 m a.s.l. (submontane forest). Gaps, multiple stemmed trees, average elevation and the standard deviation of the slope significantly affected the vegetation pattern. Spatial proximity also influenced the vegetation pattern as a structuring environmental variable or via dispersal constraints. Our results clarify, for the first time, the key variables that drive species distribution and richness across a large altitudinal range within the Atlantic Rainforest.     

Seasonal and sex-specific prey composition of black-footed catsFelis nigripes

During a 6-year field study on the game farm ‘Benfontein’ in the central Republic of South Africa 1725 prey items were observed consumed by 17 free-ranging habituated black-footed catsFelis nigripes Burchell, 1824. Average prey size was 24.1 g. Eight males fed on significantly larger prey (27.9 g) than 9 females (20.8 g). Fifty-four prey species were classified by their average mass into 8 different size classes, 3 for mammals, 3 for birds, 1 for amphibians/reptiles, and 1 for invertebrates. Small mammals (5–40 g) constituted the most important prey class (39%) of total prey biomass followed by larger mammals (>100 g; 17%) and small birds (<40 g; 16%). Mammals and birds pooled comprised 72% and 26% of total prey biomass, respectively, whereas invertebrates and amphibians/reptiles combined constituted just 2% of total prey mass consumed. Three seasons of 4-months duration were recognized. Heterotherm prey items were unavailable during winter, when larger birds and mammals (> 100 g) were mainly consumed. Small rodents like the large-eared mouseMalacothrix typica, captured 595 times by both sexes, were particularly important during the reproductive season for females with kittens. Male black-footed cats showed less variation between prey size classes consumed among climatic seasons. This sex-specific difference in prey size consumption may help to reduce intra-specific competition.