催化淀粉样蛋白产生的γ分泌酶的组装

γ分泌酶可引起多种膜蛋白的跨膜剪切作用,尤其可导致淀粉样前体蛋白（APP）的跨膜剪切,产生淀粉样蛋白（Aβ）。Aβ易发生沉积而诱发阿尔茨海默氏病（AD）。γ分泌酶由四种组分PS、Aph-1、NCT及Pen-2构成,由于该酶的相对分子质量巨大以及结构复杂,所以研究进展比较缓慢,其结构与功能至今仍未完全揭示。本文概述了在催化Aβ产生时γ分泌酶组装过程的研究进展,包括各组分之间的调控及组装。     

γ分泌酶结构和功能的研究进展

γ分泌酶是膜整合蛋白酶复合体,可以切割多种I型跨膜蛋白,近年来由于它与阿尔茨海默病发病密切相关而受到广泛关注。γ分泌酶介导的膜内切割是一个非常复杂的过程,这和它复杂的内部结构和作用机制有关。最新的研究表明γ分泌酶PS亚基的活性位点附近有一个GXGD结构域,它对于γ分泌酶的催化活性有重要作用;"含水腔隙"的发现使γ分泌酶在高度疏水的脂质双分子层内的底物切割成为可能。该文综述了近年来γ分泌酶结构和功能的研究进展,阐述了γ分泌酶切割淀粉样蛋白前体APP释放淀粉样蛋白Aβ的过程,并且指出了γ分泌酶结构功能的研究进展对阿尔茨海默病治疗的重要意义。     

治疗阿尔茨海默病的早老素/γ-分泌酶抑制剂和调节剂

阿尔茨海默病（Alzheimer’s disease,AD）又称老年痴呆症,是一种中枢神经系统（central nervous system,CNS）退行性疾病。β-淀粉样蛋白（β-amyloid,Aβ42）被认为在阿尔茨海默病（AD）的发生、发展过程中起核心作用。Aβ42由APP经β-和γ-分泌酶相继切割产生。γ-分泌酶是一个蛋白酶复合体,早老素（presenilin,PS）是γ-分泌酶的催化组分。因此,抑制PS/γ分泌酶的活性是治疗AD的关键,因而PS/γ分泌酶也是治疗AD的主要靶点。根据这些理论,人们提出了一些治疗AD的新方法,其中PS/γ-分泌酶抑制剂和调节剂成为近年来人们关注的焦点。     

阿尔茨海默病β分泌酶的研究进展

淀粉样前体蛋白（APP）在β位点裂解产生的Aβ是阿尔茨海默病（AD）患者老年斑的主要成分,APPβ位点裂解酶（β－site APP cleavage enzyme,BACE）是Aβ生成的关键酶,其实质是一种新型跨膜天冬氨酸蛋白酶。已发现的BACE有两种类型,即BACE和BACE2。二者的作用环境,亚细胞内定位相似,但BACE的中枢神经系统表达模式,降解APP的位点更具有β分泌酶的特性,因此,BACE被认为是脑内理想的β分泌酶侯选者。     

COX-2特异性抑制剂罗非昔布对阿尔茨海默病Aβ沉积的影响

本文应用免疫荧光、Western blot及ELISA等实验方法检测COX-2特异性抑制剂罗非昔布对阿尔茨海默病Aβ沉积的影响。实验分为三组,即对照组、AD模型组以及罗非昔布处理组。实验结果发现,与对照组小鼠相比,APP/PS1转基因小鼠脑内Aβ沉积及老年斑的数量增多、体积增大,Aβ1-40和Aβ1-42的含量增加,β-分泌酶和γ-分泌酶(包括BACE1、PS1、PS2、NCT)表达升高,并且小鼠脑内COX-2表达升高;小鼠经罗非昔布干预后,脑内Aβ沉积和老年斑数量减少、APP裂解酶和COX-2表达水平较AD模型组明显降低,以上结果说明COX-2特异性抑制剂罗非昔布可能通过抑制COX-2从而间接降低β-分泌酶和γ-分泌酶的活性,下调PS1、PS2、BACE1、NCT等分泌酶的表达,最终减少Aβ沉积和老年斑的形成,缓解阿尔茨海默病的发生与发展。     

人源γ-分泌酶的重要亚基nicastrin蛋白表达与纯化

γ-分泌酶是具有天冬氨酸内切酶活性跨膜蛋白复合物,与阿尔茨海默症的病理特征的β-淀粉样蛋白(amyloid proteinβ,Aβ)生成有关。Nicastrin(NCT)是Ⅰ型单次跨膜糖蛋白,具有709个氨基酸。它是γ-分泌酶的重要组分,具有募集和结合γ-分泌酶底物的功能,参与γ-分泌酶的组装过程。本研究中,利用昆虫杆状病毒表达系统表达人源NCT全长和胞外结构域,得到了纯度较好的蛋白,用于晶体初筛。由于nicastrin自身高度糖基化,使用Endo H和PNGase F去糖基化酶进行体外脱糖基作用,使得蛋白均一度提高,纯化到较稳定的胞外结构域蛋白,为下一步对人源nicastrin蛋白进行结构生物学研究奠定了基础。     

α分泌酶在阿尔茨海默病治疗中的作用

阿尔茨海默病(Alzheimer!sdisease,AD)是老年人常见的一种神经系统变性疾病,其特征性病理变化是患者脑内的神经炎性斑,神经炎性斑的主要成分是细胞外β淀粉样蛋白(βamyloid,Aβ)的沉积.Aβ由其前体物质——淀粉样前体蛋白(amyloidprecursorprotein,APP)经β分泌酶和γ分泌酶系列水解而来.APP也可在α分泌酶和γ分泌酶的序列作用下水解,既避免了完整Aβ分子的产生,又产生了对细胞有益的胞外片段(sAPPα),因此这条代谢途径已成为研究AD治疗的靶点.较多的实验结果显示,一类解聚素和金属蛋白酶(adisintegrinandmetalloproteinase,ADAM)分子具有α分泌酶的功能,α分泌酶有可能成为AD治疗的潜在药物靶点.     

Nicastrin ：一种新型的γ-分泌酶组成蛋白

Nicastrin 属Ⅰ型跨膜糖蛋白,新近被证实为γ-分泌酶复合体的组成部分 . Nicastrin 可调节γ-分泌酶复合体其他组分的稳定、转运等过程 . Nicastrin 的主要功能是通过γ-分泌酶复合体参与阿尔茨海默病中 Aβ生成和 Notch 信号系统转导 .     

中性内肽酶及其抑制剂在心血管疾病过程中的作用

中性内肽酶是一种属于Ⅱ型跨膜蛋白的肽类内切酶,在肽链的氨基端水解疏水氨基酸肽键,灭活心钠素、肾上腺髓质素、血管紧张素、内皮素等心血管活性肽,在高血压病、心力衰竭、动脉粥样硬化和休克等心血管疾病的发病过程中发挥重要作用。     

学习和记忆相关基因:Calsyntenins家族

Calsyntenins（Cstn）是一个独特的将胞外蛋白水解活性与胞内Ca^2＋信号转导相连在一起的家族,属于钙结合蛋白,与钙离子结合,参与信号转导和细胞交流。它包括3个成员,分别为calsyntenin-1、calsyntenin-2和calsyntenin-3,皆为突触后膜蛋白,主要在脑的神经元中表达,但表达模式各自不同,而且其蛋白也表现出高度的结构多样性。Calsyntenin-1位于中枢神经系统（CNS）突触后膜,是一个突触后膜蛋白水解的蛋白质。有一个结合钙的胞质酸性结构域,是一个通过胞外蛋白水解来调节突触后钙的动力调节子。Calsyntenin-1调节突触后膜下或胞内Ca^2＋储存库中的Ca^2＋瞬变,从而参与长时程增强（LTP）和长时程抑制（LTD）,与学习和记忆功能紧密相关。尤其是最近研究发现,β淀粉样蛋白前体（APP）和calsyntenins共同作用增加了β淀粉样蛋白（Aβ）的分泌,从而造成神经系统紊乱,促进阿尔采末病（AD）的发生,这对于AD发病机制的揭示和开发新一代治疗AD的药物具有重要的意义。     

Contribution of the γ-secretase subunits to the formation of catalytic pore of presenilin 1 protein

γ-Secretase is an intramembrane-cleaving protease related to the etiology of Alzheimer disease. γ-Secretase is a membrane protein complex composed of presenilin (PS) and three indispensable subunits: nicastrin, Aph-1, and Pen-2. PS functions as a protease subunit forming a hydrophilic catalytic pore structure within the lipid bilayer. However, it remains unclear how other subunits are involved in the pore formation. Here, we show that the hydrophilic pore adopted with an open conformation has already been formed by PS within the immature γ-secretase complex. The binding of the subunits induces the close proximity between transmembrane domains facing the catalytic pore. We propose a model in which the γ-secretase subunits restrict the arrangement of the transmembrane domains of PS during the formation of the functional structure of the catalytic pore.     

Structure and mechanism of the γ-secretase intramembrane protease complex

γ-Secretase is a membrane protein complex that proteolyzes within the transmembrane domain of >100 substrates, including those derived from the amyloid precursor protein and the Notch family of cell surface receptors. The nine-transmembrane presenilin is the catalytic component of this aspartyl protease complex that carries out hydrolysis in the lipid bilayer. Advances in cryoelectron microscopy have led to the elucidation of the structure of the γ-secretase complex at atomic resolution. Recently, structures of the enzyme have been determined with bound APP- or Notch-derived substrates, providing insight into the nature of substrate recognition and processing. Molecular dynamics simulations of substrate-bound enzymes suggest dynamic mechanisms of intramembrane proteolysis. Structures of the enzyme bound to small-molecule inhibitors and modulators have also been solved, setting the stage for rational structure-based drug discovery targeting γ-secretase.     

Mutation analysis of the presenilin 1 N-terminal domain reveals a broad spectrum of gamma-secretase activity toward amyloid precursor protein and other substrates

The γ-secretase protein complex executes the intramembrane proteolysis of amyloid precursor protein (APP), which releases Alzheimer disease β-amyloid peptide. In addition to APP, γ-secretase also cleaves several other type I membrane protein substrates including Notch1 and N-cadherin. γ-Secretase is made of four integral transmembrane protein subunits: presenilin (PS), nicastrin, APH1, and PEN2. Multiple lines of evidence indicate that a heteromer of PS-derived N- and C-terminal fragments functions as the catalytic subunit of γ-secretase. Only limited information is available on the domains within each subunit involved in the recognition and recruitment of diverse substrates and the transfer of substrates to the catalytic site. Here, we performed mutagenesis of two domains of PS1, namely the first luminal loop domain (LL1) and the second transmembrane domain (TM2), and analyzed PS1 endoproteolysis as well as the catalytic activities of PS1 toward APP, Notch, and N-cadherin. Our results show that distinct residues within LL1 and TM2 domains as well as the length of the LL1 domain are critical for PS1 endoproteolysis, but not for PS1 complex formation with nicastrin, APH1, and PEN2. Furthermore, our experimental PS1 mutants formed γ-secretase complexes with distinct catalytic properties toward the three substrates examined in this study; however, the mutations did not affect PS1 interaction with the substrates. We conclude that the N-terminal LL1 and TM2 domains are critical for PS1 endoproteolysis and the coordination between the putative substrate-docking site and the catalytic core of the γ-secretase.     

Toward the structure of presenilin/γ-secretase and presenilin homologs

Presenilin is the catalytic component of the γ-secretase complex, a membrane-embedded aspartyl protease that plays a central role in biology and in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer’s disease. Upon assembly with its three protein cofactors (nicastrin, Aph-1 and Pen-2), presenilin undergoes autoproteolysis into two subunits, each of which contributes one of the catalytic aspartates to the active site. A family of presenilin homologs, including signal peptide peptidase, possess proteolytic activity without the need for other protein factors, and these simpler intramembane aspartyl proteases have given insight into the action of presenilin within the γ-secretase complex. Cellular and molecular studies support a nine-transmembrane topology for presenilins and their homologs, and small-molecule inhibitors and cysteine scanning with crosslinking have suggested certain presenilin residues and regions that contribute to substrate recognition and handling. Identification of partial complexes has also offered clues to protein–protein interactions within the γ-secretase complex. Biophysical methods have allowed 3D views of the γ-secretase complex and presenilins. Most recently, the crystal structure of a microbial presenilin homolog has confirmed a nine-transmembrane topology and intramembranous location and proximity of the two conserved and essential aspartates. The crystal structure also provides a platform for the formulation of specific hypotheses regarding substrate interaction and catalysis as well as the pathogenic mechanism of Alzheimer-causing presenilin mutations. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Intramembrane Proteases.     

Protease digestion indicates that endogenous presenilin 1 is present in at least two physical forms

The membrane-bound protein complex γ-secretase is an intramembranous protease whose substrates are a number of type I transmembrane proteins including the β-amyloid precursor protein (APP). A presenilin molecule is thought to be the catalytic unit of γ-secretase and either of two presenilin homologues, PS1 or PS2, can play this role. Mutations in the presenilins, apparently leading to aberrant processing of APP, have been genetically linked to early-onset familial Alzheimer’s disease. To look for possible molecular heterogeneity in presenilin/γ-secretase we examined the ability of proteinase K (PK) to digest endogenously expressed presenilins in intact endoplasmic reticulum vesicles. We demonstrate the existence of two physically different forms of γ-secretase-associated PS1, one that is relatively PK-sensitive and one that is significantly more PK-resistant. A similarly PK-resistant form of PS2 was not observed. We speculate that the structural heterogeneity we observe may underlie, at least in part, previous observations indicating the physical and functional heterogeneity of γ-secretase. In particular, our results suggest that there are significant differences between γ-secretase complexes incorporating PS1 and PS2. This difference may underlie the more dominant role of PS1 in the generation of β-amyloid peptides and in familial Alzheimer’s disease.     

Mutagenesis mapping of the presenilin 1 calcium leak conductance pore

Missense mutations in presenilin 1 (PS1) and presenilin 2 (PS2) proteins are a major cause of familial Alzheimer disease. Presenilins are proteins with nine transmembrane (TM) domains that function as catalytic subunits of the γ-secretase complex responsible for the cleavage of the amyloid precursor protein and other type I transmembrane proteins. The water-filled cavity within presenilin is necessary to mediate the intramembrane proteolysis reaction. Consistent with this idea, cysteine-scanning mutagenesis and NMR studies revealed a number of water-accessible residues within TM7 and TM9 of mouse PS1. In addition to γ-secretase function, presenilins also demonstrate a low conductance endoplasmic reticulum Ca(2+) leak function, and many familial Alzheimer disease presenilin mutations impair this function. To map the potential Ca(2+) conductance pore in PS1, we systematically evaluated endoplasmic reticulum Ca(2+) leak activity supported by a series of cysteine point mutants in TM6, TM7, and TM9 of mouse PS1. The results indicate that TM7 and TM9, but not TM6, could play an important role in forming the conductance pore of PS1. These results are consistent with previous cysteine-scanning mutagenesis and NMR analyses of PS1 and provide further support for our hypothesis that the hydrophilic catalytic cavity of presenilins may also constitute a Ca(2+) conductance pore.     

The amyloid precursor protein: beyond amyloid

Mutations in PSEN1 and PSEN2 genes account for the majority of cases of early-onset familial Alzheimer disease. Since the first prediction of a genetic link between PSEN1 and PSEN2 with Alzheimer's disease, many research groups from both academia and pharmaceutical industry have sought to unravel how pathogenic mutations in PSEN cause presenile dementia. PSEN genes encode polytopic membrane proteins termed presenilins (PS1 and PS2), which function as the catalytic subunit of γ-secretase, an intramembrane protease that has a wide spectrum of type I membrane protein substrates. Sequential cleavage of amyloid precursor protein by BACE and γ-secretase releases highly fibrillogenic β-amyloid peptides, which accumulate in the brains of aged individuals and patients with Alzheimer's disease. Familial Alzheimer's disease-associated presenilin variants are thought to exert their pathogenic function by selectively elevating the levels of highly amyloidogenic Aβ42 peptides. In addition to Alzheimer's disease, several recent studies have linked PSEN1 to familiar frontotemporal dementia. Here, we review the biology of PS1, its role in γ-secretase activity, and discuss recent developments in the cell biology of PS1 with respect to Alzheimer's disease pathogenesis.     

Permissive Conformations of a Transmembrane Helix Allow Intramembrane Proteolysis by γ-Secretase

The intramembrane protease γ-secretase activates important signaling molecules, such as Notch receptors. It is still unclear, however, how different elements within the primary structure of substrate transmembrane domains (TMDs) contribute to their cleavability. Using a newly developed yeast-based cleavage assay, we identified three crucial regions within the TMDs of the paralogs Notch1 and Notch3 by mutational and gain-of-function approaches. The AAAA or AGAV motifs within the N-terminal half of the TMDs were found to confer strong conformational flexibility to these TMD helices, as determined by mutagenesis coupled to deuterium/hydrogen exchange. Crucial amino acids within the C-terminal half may support substrate docking into the catalytic cleft of presenilin, the enzymatic subunit of γ-secretase. Further, residues close to the C-termini of the TMDs may stabilize a tripartite β-sheet in the substrate/enzyme complex. NMR structures reveal different extents of helix bending as well as an ability to adopt widely differing conformational substates, depending on the sequence of the N-terminal half. The difference in cleavability between Notch1 and Notch3 TMDs is jointly determined by the conformational repertoires of the TMD helices and the sequences of the C-terminal half, as suggested by mutagenesis and building molecular models. In sum, cleavability of a γ-secretase substrate is enabled by different functions of cooperating TMD regions, which deepens our mechanistic understanding of substrate/non-substrate discrimination in intramembrane proteolysis.     

In vitro reconstitution of gamma-secretase activity using yeast microsomes

γ-Secretase is composed of at least four transmembrane proteins, presenilin (PS) 1/2, nicastrin, anterior pharynx-1 (Aph-1) and presenilin enhancer-2 (Pen-2), and cleaves amyloid precursor protein (APP) to produce amyloid β peptides (Aβ) that is deposited in the brains of Alzheimer disease. However, the mechanism of γ-secretase-mediated cleavage remains unclear. To examine the enzymatic properties of γ-secretase, we established an in vitro assay system using Saccharomyces cerevisiae, which does not possess homologs of human PS1/2, nicastrin, Aph-1, or Pen-2. We transformed these subunits and the substrate in pep4Δ cells with vacuole proteases inactivated, and microsome was isolated for in vitro assay. In the assay, Aβ40, Aβ42, and Aβ43 were produced with an optimal pH of ∼7.0. We also detected Aβ-production by yeast endogenous protease(s), which was abolished by the addition of phosphatidyl choline. This novel system will facilitate the analysis of substrate recognition by γ-secretase.     

Structural analysis of a rhomboid family intramembrane protease reveals a gating mechanism for substrate entry

Intramembrane proteolysis regulates diverse biological processes. Cleavage of substrate peptide bonds within the membrane bilayer is catalyzed by integral membrane proteases. Here we report the crystal structure of the transmembrane core domain of GlpG, a rhomboid-family intramembrane serine protease from Escherichia coli. The protein contains six transmembrane helices, with the catalytic Ser201 located at the N terminus of helix alpha4 approximately 10 A below the membrane surface. Access to water molecules is provided by a central cavity that opens to the extracellular region and converges on Ser201. One of the two GlpG molecules in the asymmetric unit has an open conformation at the active site, with the transmembrane helix alpha5 bent away from the rest of the molecule. Structural analysis suggests that substrate entry to the active site is probably gated by the movement of helix alpha5.