Parallel evolution of trehalose production machinery in anhydrobiotic animals via recurrent gene loss and horizontal transfer

Trehalose is a versatile non-reducing sugar. In some animal groups possessing its intrinsic production machinery, it is used as a potent protectant against environmental stresses, as well as blood sugar. However, the trehalose biosynthesis genes remain unidentified in the large majority of metazoan phyla, including vertebrates. To uncover the evolutionary history of trehalose production machinery in metazoans, we scrutinized the available genome resources and identified bifunctional trehalose-6-phosphate synthase-trehalose-6-phosphate phosphatase (TPS–TPP) genes in various taxa. The scan included our newly sequenced genome assembly of a desiccation-tolerant tardigrade Paramacrobiotus sp. TYO, revealing that this species retains TPS–TPP genes activated upon desiccation. Phylogenetic analyses identified a monophyletic group of the many of the metazoan TPS–TPP genes, namely ‘pan-metazoan’ genes, that were acquired in the early ancestors of metazoans. Furthermore, coordination of our results with the previous horizontal gene transfer studies illuminated that the two tardigrade lineages, nematodes and bdelloid rotifers, all of which include desiccation-tolerant species, independently acquired the TPS–TPP homologues via horizontal transfer accompanied with loss of the ‘pan-metazoan’ genes. Our results indicate that the parallel evolution of trehalose synthesis via recurrent loss and horizontal transfer of the biosynthesis genes resulted in the acquisition and/or augmentation of anhydrobiotic lives in animals.     

Horizontal gene transfer contributes to the wide distribution and evolution of type II restriction-modification systems

Restriction modification (RM) systems serve to protect bacteria against bacteriophages. They comprise a restriction endonuclease activity that specifically cleaves DNA and a corresponding methyltransferase activity that specifically methylates the DNA, thereby protecting it from cleavage. Such systems are very common in bacteria. To find out whether the widespread distribution of RM systems is due to horizontal gene transfer, we have compared the codon usages of 29 type II RM systems with the average codon usage of their respective bacterial hosts. Pronounced deviations in codon usage were found in six cases:EcoRI,EcoRV,KpnI,SinI,SmaI, andTthHB81. They are interpreted as evidence for horizontal gene transfer in these cases. As the methodology is expected to detect only one-fourth to one-third of all horizontal gene transfer events, this result implies that horizontal gene transfer had a considerable influence on the distribution and evolution of RM systems. In all of these six cases the codon usage deviations of the restriction enzyme genes are much more pronounced than those of the methyltransferase genes. This result suggests that in these cases horizontal gene transfer had occurred sequentially with the gene for the methyltransferase being first acquired by the cell. This can be explained by the fact that an active restriction endonuclease is highly toxic in cells whose DNA is not protected from cleavage by a corresponding methyltransferase.     

基因水平转移的评判方法和转移方式研究进展

基因水平转移是不同物种之间或细胞器间基因的交流。基因水平转移现象在原核生物中普遍存在, 在真核生物中近年来也发现了众多例证, 说明水平转移是生物界的普遍现象。文章着重对基因水平转移的概念、评判基因水平转移的标准, 水平转移的特点和转移方式, 以及基因水平转移对基因组进化的作用等方面的研究进展进行了综述。在已有的基因水平转移研究中进化树分析法、碱基组成分析法、选择压力分析法、内含子分析法、特殊序列分析法和核苷酸组成偏向性分析法等几种是常用的方法; 转座序列是生物中最易于发生水平转移的基因类型;原核生物基因水平转移的主要方式有转化、接合和转导, 真核生物中水平转移发生方式尚不清楚。基因水平转移在基因、基因组和生物进化中有着其独特的作用。     

The interconnection between biofilm formation and horizontal gene transfer

Recent research has revealed that horizontal gene transfer and biofilm formation are connected processes. Although published research investigating this interconnectedness is still limited, we will review this subject in order to highlight the potential of these observations because of their believed importance in the understanding of the adaptation and subsequent evolution of social traits in bacteria. Here, we discuss current evidence for such interconnectedness centred on plasmids. Horizontal transfer rates are typically higher in biofilm communities compared with those in planktonic states. Biofilms, furthermore, promote plasmid stability and may enhance the host range of mobile genetic elements that are transferred horizontally. Plasmids, on the other hand, are very well suited to promote the evolution of social traits such as biofilm formation. This, essentially, transpires because plasmids are independent replicons that enhance their own success by promoting inter-bacterial interactions. They typically also carry genes that heighten their hosts' direct fitness. Furthermore, current research shows that the so-called mafia traits encoded on mobile genetic elements can enforce bacteria to maintain stable social interactions. It also indicates that horizontal gene transfer ultimately enhances the relatedness of bacteria carrying the mobile genetic elements of the same origin. The perspective of this review extends to an overall interconnectedness between horizontal gene transfer, mobile genetic elements and social evolution of bacteria.     

Lateral genomics

More than 20 complete prokaryotic genome sequences are now publicly available, each by itself an unparalleled resource for understanding organismal biology. Collectively, these data are even more powerful: they could force a dramatic reworking of the framework in which we understand biological evolution. It is possible that a single universal phylogenetic tree is not the best way to depict relationships between all living and extinct species. Instead a web- or net-like pattern, reflecting the importance of horizontal or lateral gene transfer between lineages of organisms, might provide a more appropriate visual metaphor. Here, I ask whether this way of thinking is really justified, and explore its implications.     

Lateral genomics

More than 20 complete prokaryotic genome sequences are now publicly available, each by itself an unparalleled resource for understanding organismal biology. Collectively, these data are even more powerful: they could force a dramatic reworking of the framework in which we understand biological evolution. It is possible that a single universal phylogenetic tree is not the best way to depict relationships between all living and extinct species. Instead a web- or net-like pattern, reflecting the importance of horizontal or lateral gene transfer between lineages of organisms, might provide a more appropriate visual metaphor. Here, I ask whether this way of thinking is really justified, and explore its implications.     

Lateral genomics

More than 20 complete prokaryotic genome sequences are now publicly available, each by itself an unparalleled resource for understanding organismal biology. Collectively, these data are even more powerful: they could force a dramatic reworking of the framework in which we understand biological evolution. It is possible that a single universal phylogenetic tree is not the best way to depict relationships between all living and extinct species. Instead a web- or net-like pattern, reflecting the importance of horizontal or lateral gene transfer between lineages of organisms, might provide a more appropriate visual metaphor. Here, I ask whether this way of thinking is really justified, and explore its implications.     

What can we learn from tobacco and other Solanaceae about horizontal DNA transfer?

In eukaryotic organisms, horizontal gene transfer (HGT) is regarded as an important though infrequent source of reticulate evolution. Many confirmed instances of natural HGT involving multicellular eukaryotes come from flowering plants. This review intends to provide a synthesis of present knowledge regarding HGT in higher plants, with an emphasis on tobacco and other species in the Solanaceae family because there are numerous detailed reports concerning natural HGT events, involving various donors, in this family. Moreover, in-depth experimental studies using transgenic tobacco are of great importance for understanding this process. Valuable insights are offered concerning the mechanisms of HGT, the adaptive role and regulation of natural transgenes, and new routes for gene trafficking. With an increasing amount of data on HGT, a synthetic view is beginning to emerge.     

Rampant horizontal transfer and duplication of rubisco genes in eubacteria and plastids

Previous work has shown that molecular phylogenies of plastids, cyanobacteria, and proteobacteria based on the rubisco (ribulose-1,5- bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase) genes rbcL and rbcS are incongruent with molecular phylogenies based on other genes and are also incompatible with structural and biochemical information. Although it has been much speculated that this is the consequence of a single horizontal gene transfer (of a proteobacterial or mitochondrial rubisco operon into plastids of rhodophytic and chromophytic algae), neither this hypothesis nor the alternative hypothesis of ancient gene duplication have been examined in detail. We have conducted phylogenetic analyses of all available bacterial rbcL sequences, and representative plastid sequences, in order to explore these alternative hypothesis and fully examine the complexity of rubisco gene evolution. The rbcL phylogeny reveals a surprising number of gene relationships that are fundamentally incongruent with organismal relationships as inferred from multiple lines of other molecular evidence. On the order of six horizontal gene transfers are implied by the form I (L8S8) rbcL phylogeny, two between cyanobacteria and proteobacteria, one between proteobacteria and plastids, and three within proteobacteria. Alternatively, a single ancient duplication of the form I rubisco operon, followed by repeated and pervasive differential loss of one operon or the other, would account for much of this incongruity. In all probability, the rubisco operon has undergone multiple events of both horizontal gene transfer and gene duplication in different lineages.      

遗传物质的横向传递与转基因植物的安全性

横向传递是在同种或异种生物不同个体之间沿水平方向进行遗传物质的单方向转移,有多种不同的转移方式。在生物界中,遗传物质的横向传递通常是借助某种载体如病毒来完成,高等生物还可以通过有性生殖在同种生物不同个体之间或异种生物不同个体之间传递遗传物质。基因的横向传递是普遍存在的,是生物进化的重要动力之一。转基因植物是人工遗传物质横向转移的结果,人工遗传物质横向转移正在越来越明显地影响着生物的生存状态。     

Evolution of mercuric reductase (merA) gene: a case of horizontal gene transfer

In the present study the role of horizontal gene transfer events in providing the mercury resistance is depicted. merA is key gene in mer operon and has been used for this study. Phylogenetic analysis of aligned merA sequences shows broad similarities to the established 16S rRNA phylogeny. But there is no separation of bacterial merA from archael merA which suggests that merA gene in both these groups share considerable sequence homology. However, inconsistencies between merA and 16S rRNA gene phylogenetic trees are apparent for some taxa. These discrepancies in the phylogenetic trees for merA gene and 16S rRNA gene have lead to the suggestion that horizontal gene transfer (HGT) is a major contributor for its evolution. The close association among members of different groups in merA gene tree, as supported by high bootstrap values, deviations in GC content and codon usage pattern indicate the possibility that horizontal gene transfer events might have taken place during the evolution of this gene.     

Sponge non-metastatic Group I Nme gene/protein - structure and function is conserved from sponges to humans

Background  

Nucleoside diphosphate kinases NDPK are evolutionarily conserved enzymes present in Bacteria, Archaea and Eukarya, with human Nme1 the most studied representative of the family and the first identified metastasis suppressor. Sponges (Porifera) are simple metazoans without tissues, closest to the common ancestor of all animals. They changed little during evolution and probably provide the best insight into the metazoan ancestor's genomic features. Recent studies show that sponges have a wide repertoire of genes many of which are involved in diseases in more complex metazoans. The original function of those genes and the way it has evolved in the animal lineage is largely unknown. Here we report new results on the metastasis suppressor gene/protein homolog from the marine sponge Suberites domuncula, NmeGp1Sd. The purpose of this study was to investigate the properties of the sponge Group I Nme gene and protein, and compare it to its human homolog in order to elucidate the evolution of the structure and function of Nme.     

Interkingdom protein domain fusion: the case of an antimicrobial protein in potato (Solanum tuberosum)

Horizontal gene transfer (HGT) is thought to have been involved in both prokaryotic and eukaryotic evolution. However, the extent to which it shapes eukaryotic genomes is still questionable. The ability to detect and study horizontal gene transfer events is of significant importance to our understanding of its effect on the evolution of eukaryotic genes and genomes. We performed phylogenetic analysis of a published anti-bacterial protein AP1 from potato (Solanum tuberosum). One domain encodes a phosphoesterase with high similarity to an acid phosphatase of Ralstonia solanacearum and closely related Betaproteobacteria. The second domain encodes an UspA-like domain similar to those present in plants. Our phylogenetic analyses suggest that both domains evolved along different evolutionary pathways until they merged into a single gene. We propose that the phosphoesterase domain was acquired by HGT. Our results support claims in favor of HGT detection at the protein domain level. The case of anti-bacterial protein AP1 in potato highlights the significance of gene fusion/protein domain fusion as an important feature of horizontal gene transfer which may contribute substantially to the adaptive abilities of eukaryotic organisms.     

Evidences of lateral gene transfer between archaea and pathogenic bacteria

Acquisition of new genetic material through horizontal gene transfer has been shown to be an important feature in the evolution of many pathogenic bacteria. Changes in the genetic repertoire, occurring through gene acquisition and deletion, are the major events underlying the emergence and evolution of bacterial pathogens. However, horizontal gene transfer across the domains i.e. archaea and bacteria is not so common. In this context, we explore events of horizontal gene transfer between archaea and bacteria. In order to determine whether the acquisition of archaeal genes by lateral gene transfer is an important feature in the evolutionary history of the pathogenic bacteria, we have developed a scheme of stepwise eliminations that identifies archaeal-like genes in various bacterial genomes. We report the presence of 9 genes of archaeal origin in the genomes of various bacteria, a subset of which is also unique to the pathogenic members and are not found in respective non-pathogenic counterparts. We believe that these genes, having been retained in the respective genomes through selective advantage, have key functions in the organism’s biology and may play a role in pathogenesis.     

Genetic exchange between bacteria in the environment.

Nucleotide sequence analysis, and more recently whole genome analysis, shows that bacterial evolution has often proceeded by horizontal gene flow between different species and genera. In bacteria, gene transfer takes place by transformation, transduction, or conjugation and this review examines the roles of these gene transfer processes, between different bacteria, in a wide variety of ecological niches in the natural environment. This knowledge is necessary for our understanding of plasmid evolution and ecology, as well as for risk assessment. The rise and spread of multiple antibiotic resistance plasmids in medically important bacteria are consequences of intergeneric gene transfer coupled to the selective pressures posed by the increasing use and misuse of antibiotics in medicine and animal feedstuffs. Similarly, the evolution of degradative plasmids is a response to the increasing presence of xenobiotic pollutants in soil and water. Finally, our understanding of the role of horizontal gene transfer in the environment is essential for the evaluation of the possible consequences of the deliberate environmental release of natural or recombinant bacteria for agricultural and bioremediation purposes.     

Knots in the family tree: evolutionary relationships and functions of knox homeobox genes

Knotted-like homeobox (knox) genes constitute a gene family in plants. Class I knox genes are expressed in shoot apical meristems, and (with notable exceptions) not in lateral organ primordia. Class II genes have more diverse expression patterns. Loss and gain of function mutations indicate that knox genes are important regulators of meristem function. Gene duplication has contributed to the evolution of families of homeodomain proteins in metazoans. We believe that similar mechanisms have contributed to the diversity of knox gene function in plants. Knox genes may have contributed to the evolution of compound leaves in tomato and could be involved in the evolution of morphological traits in other species. Alterations in cis-regulatory regions in some knox genes correlate with novel patterns of gene expression and distinctive morphologies. Preliminary data from the analysis of class I knox gene expression illustrates the evolution of complex patterns of knox expression is likely to have occurred through loss and gain of domains of gene expression.     

The Peperomia Mitochondrial coxI Group I Intron: Timing of Horizontal Transfer and Subsequent Evolution of the Intron

The Peperomia polybotrya coxI gene intron is the only currently reported group I intron in a vascular plant mitochondrial genome and it likely originated by horizontal transfer from a fungal donor. We provide a clearer picture of the horizontal transfer and a portrayal of the evolution of the group I intron since it was gained by the Peperomia mitochondrial genome. The intron was transferred recently in terms of plant evolution, being restricted to the single genus Peperomia among the order Piperales. Additional support is presented for the suggestion that a recombination/repair mechanism was used by the intron for integration into the Peperomia mitochondrial genome, as a perfect 1:1 correspondence exists between the intron's presence in a species and the presence of divergent nucleotide markers flanking the intron insertion site. Sequencing of coxI introns from additional Peperomia species revealed that several mutations have occurred in the intron since the horizontal transfer, but sequence alterations have not caused frameshifts or created stop codons in the intronic open reading frame. In addition, two coxI pseudogenes in Peperomia cubensis were discovered that lack a large region of coxI exon 2 and contain a truncated version of the group I intron that likely cannot be spliced out. Received: 29 May 1997 / Accepted: 1 November 1997     

The social evolution of bacterial pathogenesis

Many of the genes responsible for the virulence of bacterial pathogens are carried by mobile genetic elements that can be transferred horizontally between different bacterial lineages. Horizontal transfer of virulence-factor genes has played a profound role in the evolution of bacterial pathogens, but it is poorly understood why these genes are so often mobile. Here, I present a hypothetical selective mechanism maintaining virulence-factor genes on horizontally transmissible genetic elements. For virulence factors that are secreted extracellularly, selection within hosts may favour mutant 'cheater' strains of the pathogen that do not produce the virulence factor themselves but still benefit from factors produced by other members of the pathogen population within a host. Using simple mathematical models, I show that if this occurs then selection for infectious transmission between hosts favours pathogen strains that can reintroduce functional copies of virulence-factor genes into cheaters via horizontal transfer, forcing them to produce the virulence factor. Horizontal gene transfer is thus a novel mechanism for the evolution of cooperation. I discuss predictions of this hypothesis that can be tested empirically and its implications for the evolution of pathogen virulence.