Monitoring codling moth (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) with a four‐component volatile blend compared to a sex pheromone‐based blend

Monitoring adult codling moth, Cydia pomonella (L.), is a crucial component in implementing effective integrated management programmes in apple, Malus domestica Borkhausen. Use of sex pheromone lures to track male populations has been the traditional approach, but their use in orchards treated with sex pheromone for mating disruption (MD) has been problematic. Development of kairomone and kairomone–pheromone combination lures has allowed the catch of female moths and has benefited several aspects of codling moth management through improved spray timings and action thresholds. Recently, a new four‐component volatile blend (4‐K) comprised of pear ester, (E,Z)‐2,4‐ethyl decadienoate (PE), (E)‐11 4,8‐dimethyl‐1,3,7‐nonatriene, all isomers of pyranoid linalool oxide and acetic acid (AA) has been characterized that has increased female moth catch threefold versus any previous blend. Field trapping studies were conducted to compare moth catches in traps baited with 4‐K versus the use of sex pheromone, (E,E)‐8,10‐dodecadien‐1‐ol (PH) in combination with PE and AA. Trials were conducted in orchards left either untreated, or treated with PH or PH + PE. Traps baited with 4‐K and 4‐K + PH lures caught significantly more females than traps baited with PH + PE + AA lures. Traps baited with 4‐K + PH lures caught significantly more total moths than traps baited with PH + PE + AA lures in all three orchards. Adding a PH lure to traps with the 4‐K lure did not affect female catch, but significantly increased male and total moth catches. These studies demonstrate that codling moth can be trapped effectively in apple under MD without the use of sex pheromone lures. The significant increase in female codling moth catch with the 4‐K lure suggests that efforts to improve spray timings and action threshold determinations as well as mass trapping might be enhanced with this new lure.     

Monitoring codling moth (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) in orchards treated with pear ester and sex pheromone combo dispensers

Monitoring codling moth, Cydia pomonella (L.), with its sex pheromone (E,E)‐8,10‐dodecadien‐1‐ol (codlemone) alone or in combination with plant volatiles (PH‐plant volatile lures) with and without the addition of an acetic acid (AA) lure was compared in apple and walnut orchards treated with PVC Cidetrak^® dispensers (CM‐DA Combo) loaded with 60 mg pear ester, ethyl (E, Z)‐2,4‐decadienoate (PE) and 185 mg codlemone. Lures were also evaluated in untreated apple and walnut orchards and apple orchards treated with Cidetrak^® dispensers (CM) loaded with 120 mg codlemone. Traps with codlemone lures caught more moths than PE plus AA but similar numbers as traps with the PH‐PE lure in untreated apple and walnut orchards. The PH‐PE outperformed codlemone lures in apple orchards treated with CM dispensers. Codlemone outperformed PH‐PE lures in apple but not in walnut orchards treated mid‐season with CM‐DA Combo dispensers. Combining AA with PE significantly increased moth catch and together they performed similarly to the PH‐PE lure in all dispenser treatments in apple orchards. However, adding AA with the PH‐PE lure did not increase moth catches. The addition of AA to any of the lures tested except codlemone alone significantly increased the catch of females. Adding AA to either PE or the PH‐PE lure created a similarly attractive lure in orchards treated with CM‐DA Combo dispensers. Combining (E)‐4,8‐dimethyl‐1,3,7‐nonatriene (DMNT) with codlemone in a combinational lure plus AA performed as well as any lure tested in apple orchards treated with CM‐DA Combo dispensers. Combinational lures loaded with either (E,E)‐farnesol, (E)‐β‐farnesene or DMNT performed significantly better than the PH‐PE lure in apple orchards treated with CM‐DA Combo dispensers only in the first generation. Both PH‐DMNT and PH‐farnesol lures were comparable to PH‐PE, except that the PH‐farnesol lure was less attractive to female moths.     

Pheromone pre-exposure and mating modulate codling moth (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) response to host plant volatiles

Abstract 1 Two codling moth Cydia pomonella kairomonal attractants, ethyl (E,Z)‐2,4‐decadienoate (pear ester) and (E)‐β‐farnesene, were tested in an insecticide‐sprayed apple orchard and an orchard treated for mating disruption with synthetic pheromone (E,E)‐8,10‐dodecadienol (codlemone). Male captures with pear ester were higher in the pheromone‐treated than in the insecticide‐treated orchard, whereas captures with (E)‐β‐farnesene were not different. Subsequent wind tunnel experiments confirmed that pre‐exposure to sex pheromone codlemone increased the behavioural response of codling moth males to pear ester. This supports the idea that male attraction to the plant volatile pear ester and sex pheromone codlemone is mediated through the same sensory channels. 2 Pear ester is a bisexual codling moth attractant and even captures of female moths were significantly increased in the pheromone‐treated orchard. In the laboratory wind tunnel, pheromone pre‐exposure had no effect on female response to pear ester, but significantly more mated than unmated codling moth females flew upwind towards a pear ester source. Differences in mating status in insecticide‐treated vs. pheromone‐treated orchards may thus account for the differences in female trap captures with pear ester. 3 These findings are important with respect to monitoring of codling moth with pear ester in mating disruption orchards. They also emphasize the importance of host plant volatiles in pheromone‐mediated mating disruption, which has been neglected to date.     

Antennal responses of Cydia pomonella (L.) exposed to surfaces treated with methoxyfenozide

Electroantennogram (EAG) measurements were recorded from the antennae of male and female codling moth, Cydia pomonella L., to determine whether adult moths exposed to surfaces treated with the ecdysteroid agonist methoxyfenozide experience a decline in their antennal reception and thus olfactory sensitivity. Such a phenomenon would offer a possible mechanism for the previously reported decreased responsiveness from moths treated with methoxyfenozide to pheromone‐ and plant volatile‐based monitoring lures. Mean EAG data revealed that the antennae from methoxyfenozide‐treated male moths appear to be just as sensitive to various doses of synthetic codlemone as the antennae from the control and surfactant‐treated moths, but they appeared to be less sensitive to the pheromone component 12OH (collected from female effluvia) than the control male antennae. Mean male EAG responses to the pheromone components E8,E10‐12Al and codlemone collected from methoxyfenozide‐treated females were significantly less than the responses towards those two pheromone components collected from the control and surfactant‐treated females. Female moth exposure to methoxyfenozide did not negatively impact the sensitivity of female antennae to the plant volatile pear ester, but it did towards the apple volatile butyl hexanoate. Data from this study show that adult C. pomonella exposure to methoxyfenozide‐treated surfaces does appear to negatively impact, in a minor way, the (i) olfactory sensitivity (or detection) of male antennae towards some components of the female sex pheromone, (ii) the female antennal sensitivity towards a key apple volatile and (iii) the attractiveness of female pheromone effluvia.     

Improved monitoring of oriental fruit moth (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) with terpinyl acetate plus acetic acid membrane lures

Male and female moth catches of Grapholita molesta (Busck) in traps were evaluated in stone and pome fruit orchards untreated or treated with sex pheromones for mating disruption in Uruguay, Argentina, Chile, USA, and Italy from 2015 to 2017. Trials evaluated various blends loaded into either membrane cup lures or septa. Membrane lures were loaded with terpinyl acetate (TA), acetic acid (AA) and (Z)‐3‐hexenyl acetate alone or in combinations. Two septa lures were loaded with either the three‐component sex pheromone blend for G. molesta alone or in combination with codlemone (2‐PH), the sex pheromone of Cydia pomonella (L). A third septum lure included the combination sex pheromone blend plus pear ester, (E,Z)‐2,4‐ethyl decadienoate (2‐PH/PE), and a fourth septum was loaded with only β‐ocimene. Results were consistent across geographical areas showing that the addition of β‐ocimene or (Z)‐3‐hexenyl acetate did not increase moth catches. The addition of pear ester to the sex pheromone lure marginally increased moth catches. The use of TA and AA together significantly increased moth catches compared with the use of only one of the two components. Traps with the TA/AA lure outperformed the Ajar trap baited with a liquid TA plus sugar bait. The emission rate of AA was not a significant factor affecting the performance of the TA/AA lure. The addition of TA/AA significantly increased moth catches when combined with the 2‐PH lure. The TA/AA lure also allowed traps to catch both sexes. Catch of C. pomonella with the 2‐PH lure was comparable to the use of codlemone; however, moth catch was significantly reduced with the 2‐PH/PE lure. Optimization of these complex lures can likely further improve managers’ ability to monitor G. molesta and help to develop multispecies tortricid lures for use in individual traps.     

Female sex pheromone of a nettle caterpillar,Monema flavescens,in China

Monema flavescens Walker (Lepidoptera: Limacodidae) is a multivoltine, generalist moth whose larvae cause serious damage to many types of trees. Pheromone lures prepared according to a study of a Japanese population were found to be ineffective at attracting M. flavescens nettle caterpillars in China, and some studies have shown intraspecific geographical differences in the composition of sex pheromones. We therefore reexamined the sex pheromone composition of M. flavescens in a Chinese population. In this study, the electroantennographically (EAG) active compounds in an extract from Chinese virgin females of M. flavescens were identified as (E)‐8‐decen‐1‐ol (E8‐10:OH), (Z)‐7,9‐decadien‐1‐ol (Z7,9‐10:OH), (Z)‐9,11‐dodecadien‐1‐ol (Z9,11‐12:OH), and (Z)‐9,11‐dodecadienal (Z9,11‐12:Ald) via coupled gas chromatographic‐electroantennographic detection (GC‐EAD) and coupled GC‐mass spectrometry (MS). Pheromone dimorphism might occur in this species, as this mixture of compounds in Chinese females was different from that of E8‐10:OH and E7,9‐10:OH extracted from Japanese females in previous research. In wind tunnel and field tests, the males were significantly attracted to a blend of the pheromone components E8‐10:OH, Z7,9‐10:OH, and Z9,11‐12:OH in a 100:5:4 ratio. The addition of Z9,11‐12:Ald did not change the male response. The optimized three‐component lure blend may provide a useful tool for monitoring and controlling Chinese populations of M. flavescens.     

Addition of terpenoids to pear ester plus acetic acid increases catches of codling moth (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae)

Field studies were conducted to evaluate new kairomone blends in combination with pear ester (E,Z)‐2,4‐ethyl decadienoate (PE) and acetic acid (AA) for their attraction of male and female codling moth, Cydia pomonella (L.), in apple, Malus domestica Borkhausen. The addition of decanal to either AA or PE alone significantly increased total and female moth catches. However, the addition of decanal did not improve the attraction of PE + AA. The addition of either the pyranoid (PyrLOX) or furanoid (FurLOX) linalool oxide but not linalool (LOL) increased moth catches with PE but did not increase catches with PE + AA. Similarly, the addition of PyrLOX plus decanal did not improve PE + AA. The addition of (E)‐4,8‐dimethyl‐1,3,7‐nonatriene (DMNT) to either AA, PE + AA or PE + AA+decanal did not significantly increase moth catches. However, the addition of PyrLOX to traps with PE + AA and DMNT (4‐component lure) significantly increased moth catches compared with PE + AA alone or any of the ternary blends of these volatiles. Females accounted for 60%–80% of the total catch with this 4‐component lure. The 4‐component blend with PyrLOX was a more attractive lure than similar blends that substituted LOL, or a binary blend of LOL and FurLOX for PyrLOX. The 4‐component blend caught nearly fourfold more total and female moths than the purported attractant N‐butyl sulphide when it was used in combination with PE + AA. These results indicate that significant improvements in monitoring, mating disruption and mass trapping of codling moth are possible. Further studies are needed to assess the new attractive blend's effectiveness in combination with sex pheromone lures and to evaluate whether other host plant volatiles can be added or substitute for DMNT or LOX when used in combination with PE + AA.     

Monitoring oriental fruit moth (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) with the Ajar bait trap in orchards under mating disruption

Studies in Oregon, California, Pennsylvania and Italy evaluated the relative performance of the Ajar trap compared with several other traps for the capture of Grapholita molesta (Busck), in pome and stone fruit orchards treated with sex pheromone dispensers for mating disruption. The Ajar is a delta‐shaped trap with a screened jar filled with an aqueous terpinyl acetate plus brown sugar bait solution (TAS) that opens inside the trap and is surrounded by a sticky liner. The TAS‐baited Ajar trap was evaluated with and without the addition of a sex pheromone lure and compared with a delta trap baited with a sex pheromone lure and a bucket trap filled with the TAS bait. Although the Ajar trap had a 90% lower evaporation of the TAS bait than the bucket trap, both of them caught similar numbers in the majority of the field tests of both sexes of G. molesta. The addition of the sex pheromone lure did not increase moth catches by the TAS‐baited Ajar trap. The TAS‐baited Ajar trap caught significantly greater numbers of moths than the sex pheromone‐baited delta trap in 18 of the 20 orchards. Few hymenopterans were caught in orange TAS‐baited Ajar traps, but the catch of flies and other moths relative to the target pest remained high. Flight tunnel and field tests evaluated the effect of several screen designs on the catches of G. molesta and non‐target species. All exclusion devices significantly reduced the catch of larger moths. However, designs that did not reduce the catch of male G. molesta did not reduce the catch of muscid flies. Exclusion devices with openings <7.0 mm significantly reduced the catch of female G. molesta. The addition of (E)‐β‐farnesene, (E)‐β‐ocimene or butyl hexanoate septa lures to TAS‐baited Ajar traps significantly increased total moth catch. The addition of (E)‐β‐ocimene also significantly increased female moth catch.     

Development of multi-component non-sex pheromone blends to monitor both sexes of Cydia pomonella (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae)

Nineteen host plant volatiles (HPVs) were screened for attractivity to adult codling moth Cydia pomonella (L.) as a fourth component of core blends (3K) including (E,Z)-2,4-ethyl decadienoate, (E)-4,8-dimethyl-1,3,7-nonatriene and acetic acid. Each new quaternary combination was compared with a previously reported attractive bisexual lure (4K), consisting of the 3K blend plus 6-ethenyl-2,2,6-trimethyloxan-3-ol (pyranoid linalool oxide, pyrLOX). All lure evaluations were conducted in apple, Malus domestica (Borkhausen). Several compounds were found to significantly lower total and/or female catches when added to the 3K blend, including (Z)-3-hexenol, (E)-2-hexanal and hexyl butanoate (female and total moths), and (Z)-3-hexenyl acetate and linalool (female moths). Other compounds when added to the 3K blend did not increase or decrease moth catches, including methyl salicylate, (E)-β-ocimene, limonene, β-caryophyllene, butyl hexanoate, farnesol, terpineol, terpinen-4-ol and α-pinene. A few added compounds significantly increased moth catches compared with the 3K blend, including β-pinene (male moths), (Z)-jasmone (male and total moths), (E)-β-farnesene and β-myrcene (female and total moths), and (E,E)-α-farnesene (male, female, and total moths). In addition, each of these five compounds when added to the 3K core blend performed similarly to the 4K lure (male, females, and total moths). Further studies should expand these results through tests of these and other new blends with a range of component ratios and total loading amounts. Field trials should also be replicated within all host crops of codling moth and across major geographical production regions.     

Monitoring oak processionary moth Thaumetopoea processionea L. using pheromone traps: the influence of pheromone lure source,trap design and height above the ground on capture rates

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Monitoring oriental fruit moth and codling moth (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) with combinations of pheromones and kairomones

Experiments were conducted in North and South America during 2012–2013 to evaluate the use of lure combinations of sex pheromones (PH), host plant volatiles (HPVs) and food baits in traps to capture the oriental fruit moth, Grapholita molesta (Busck), and codling moth, Cydia pomonella (L.), in pome and stone fruit orchards treated with sex pheromones. The combination of the sex pheromone of both species (PH combo lure) significantly increased G. molesta and marginally decreased C. pomonella captures as compared with captures of each species with either of their sex pheromones alone. The addition of a HPV combination lure [(E,Z)‐2,4‐ethyl decadienoate plus (E)‐β‐ocimene] or acetic acid used alone or together did not significantly increase the catch of either species in traps with the PH combo lure. The Ajar trap baited with terpinyl acetate and brown sugar (TAS bait) caught significantly more G. molesta than the delta trap baited with PH combo plus acetic acid in California during 2012. The addition of a PH combo lure to an Ajar trap significantly increased catches of G. molesta compared to the use of the TAS bait or PH combo lure alone in 2013. Female G. molesta were caught in TAS‐baited Ajar traps at similar levels with or without the use of additional lures. Ajar traps baited with the TAS bait alone or with (E)‐β‐ocimene and/or PH combo lures caught significantly fewer C. pomonella than delta traps with sex pheromone alone. Ajar traps with 6.4‐mm screened flaps caught similar numbers of total and female G. molesta as similarly baited open Ajar traps, and with a significant reduction in the catch of non‐targets. Broader testing of HPV and PH combo lures for G. molesta in either delta or screened or open Ajar traps is warranted.     

Variability in the efficacy of sex pheromone lures for monitoring oriental fruit moth (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae)

Studies were conducted in Chile and the United States to compare the attractiveness of various commercial sex pheromone lures and two experimental lures for oriental fruit moth, Grapholita molesta (Busck), in peach orchards treated with or without sex pheromone dispensers. The experimental lures contained the three‐component sex pheromone blend of G. molesta: Z‐8‐dodecenyl acetate, E‐8‐dodecenyl acetate and Z‐8‐dodecenol (Z8‐12:OH), and the sex pheromone of codling moth, Cydia pomonella (L.), (E,E)‐8,10‐dodecadien‐1‐ol, (codlemone). Commercial lures varied in their substrate, initial loading and blend ratio of components. Significant differences in male catches were found among commercial lures in orchards treated with or without sex pheromone dispensers. Experimental lures with the addition of codlemone significantly increased the catches of G. molesta using lures loaded with 0%, 1% or 5% Z8‐12:OH in the G. molesta blend compared with the same ratio of components in just the G. molesta blend. The experimental lures were significantly more attractive than all commercial lures in the untreated orchard. However, moth catch with the experimental lures in the sex pheromone‐treated orchard was only intermediate among all of the lures tested. These findings highlight the need to develop more effective and standardized lures that can be used in trap‐based monitoring programme for this important pest.     

Sex pheromone of the alfalfa plant bug,Adelphocoris lineolatus

In northern China, due to the large‐scale adoption of transgenic Bacillus thuringiensis Berliner (Bt) cotton, the number of Adelphocoris lineolatus (Goeze) (Hemiptera: Miridae) has increased quickly, causing significant loss in cotton and alfalfa production. One of the environmentally safe strategies without use of pesticides is the application of insect pheromone for mating disruption. In our study, we aim to identify the active components in sexually mature virgin female A. lineolatus, and activity and optimal ratio of these components. By using gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC‐MS) and gas chromatography–electroantennographic detection (GC‐EAD), we identified three active compounds: hexyl butyrate (HB), (E)‐2‐hexenyl butyrate (E2HB), and (E)‐4‐oxo‐2‐hexenal (4‐OHE). We examined the release rate of septum and tube dispensers in a wind tunnel. In a field experiment, deletion of 4‐OHE or E2HB resulted in significant suppression of male trap catches, indicating that E2HB or 4‐OHE may be the active pheromone components. Traps baited with a blend of 4‐OHE and E2HB at 2:5, 3:4, and 4:3 caught significantly more males, suggesting that the optimal ratio of 4‐OHE and E2HB could be in the range of 1:1 to 1:2. The addition of a large amount of HB could strongly reduce the attractive activity of both virgin females and artificial lures. We also compared the attractiveness of septum lures and tube lures in field experiments. The septum lures attracted males in the first 3 days. The tube lures caught more males after 3 days and the attractive effects existed up to 5 weeks, suggesting them as a tool for long‐term monitoring and control of plant bugs.     

Optimization of pheromone lure and trap design for monitoring the fir coneworm, Dioryctria abietivorella

The major components of the sex pheromone of Dioryctria abietivorella (Groté) (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) were recently identified as (9Z,11E)‐tetradecadien‐1‐yl acetate (9Z,11E‐14:Ac) and a polyunsaturated, long‐chain hydrocarbon (3Z,6Z,9Z,12Z,15Z)‐pentacosapentaene (C25 pentaene). The optimal ratio of these components and the role of potential minor components were not fully determined in the initial short report on the pheromone's identification. We tested different ratios of the two major components loaded into grey halobutyl rubber septum dispensers, placed in sticky traps deployed in conifer breeding arboreta. The optimal ratio of the two components was 200 µg 9Z,11E‐14:Ac to 2000 µg C25 pentaene. (Z)‐9‐Tetradecen‐1‐yl acetate, which had been identified previously in female pheromone gland extracts, and five other potential minor pheromone components, were tested individually as additions to the optimized two‐component lure blend. None of the ternary blends were more attractive than the optimized two‐component blend, at the ratios tested. Two lure adjuvants, a UV stabilizer (Sumisorb 300) and the antioxidant butylated hydroxytoluene, added individually or together, did not affect the attractiveness of the optimized lure blend. The Pherotech diamond sticky trap baited with the optimized lure blend was the most effective trap design among eight types of sticky trap and a bucket style trap that were tested. Traps baited with synthetic lures were as attractive as traps baited with virgin female moths. The optimized two‐component lure blend in the Pherotech diamond trap is recommended for monitoring fir coneworm infestations. The availability of an effective synthetic pheromone opens the possibility for control tactics using mating disruption or attract‐and‐kill techniques.     

Combined approaches using sex pheromone and pear ester for behavioural disruption of codling moth (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae)

Attractive properties of pear ester, ethyl (E,Z)‐2,4‐decadienoate, and codlemone, (E,E)‐8,10‐dodecadien‐1‐ol, the sex pheromone of codling moth, Cydia pomonella (L.), were utilized in experiments on behavioural disruption of mating. Standard dispensers loaded with codlemone alone or in combination with pear ester (combo) were applied at 500–1000/ha. Larger (10‐fold) combo dispensers (Meso) were evaluated at a rate of 80/ha. The addition of microencapsulated pear ester, PE‐MEC, sprayed with insecticides at 30 ml/ha was also evaluated. Male moth catches in unmated female‐baited traps were lower in standard combo dispenser than in codlemone dispenser–treated plots. Female moth catch in traps baited with the combination of pear ester, codlemone and acetic acid was lower in standard combo dispenser than in codlemone dispenser–treated plots. In 12 comparative experiments spanning from 2006 to 2012, male moth catch in unmated female‐baited traps was consistently and significantly lower in combo than in codlemone dispenser–treated plots. Male catch in codlemone‐baited traps did not differ between dispenser treatments in eight studies from 2006 to 2009. These results emphasize the benefit of alternatively using traps baited with unmated females over codlemone lures for the analysis of dispenser activity. Fruit injury was significantly reduced with the addition of PE‐MEC to insecticide applications across untreated and dispenser treatments. Proportion of unmated females trapped was higher in standard combo dispenser than in codlemone dispenser–treated and untreated plots. Similarly, the proportion of unmated females caught was higher in the Meso combo dispenser than in nearby or distant codlemone dispenser–treated plots. These field studies conducted in apple over 3 years demonstrate that adding pear ester both to pheromone dispensers, either standard or Meso, and to supplementary insecticide sprays can provide a significant increase in the disruption of sexual communication, reductions in female mating and reductions in fruit injury.     

Acetic acid lure placement within traps affects moth catches of codling moth (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae)

Previous studies have shown that the addition of an acetic acid colure (AA) to traps baited with pear ester, (E,Z)‐2,4‐ethyl‐decadienoate, and codlemone, (E,E)‐8,10‐dodecadien‐1‐ol, the sex pheromone (PH) of codling moth, Cydia pomonella (L.) (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae), (Combo lure) can significantly increase moth catches. A commercial AA colure was developed to be used with the Combo lure using a specialized cardboard lure holder. However, research in 2011 suggested that the addition of the AA colure placed in the holder was reducing moth catches. Studies were subsequently conducted in both North America and South America to examine the factors affecting these unexpected results. Hanging the AA colure from the inside top of the delta trap was found to be a primary factor reducing moth catches of male but not female codling moth. Significantly, more males were caught if the AA colure was placed on the sticky liner of the trap than in the holder. Laboratory and field studies found that this negative effect on moth catches lessens over time with aged AA colures that had lower emission rates. The position of the holder in the trap (upwind or downwind) relative to the direction where moths approached was not a significant factor affecting moth catch with the AA colure. However, the spacing of the lures on the holder was an important factor with significantly higher male catches with lures 5.5 cm apart and the AA lure above the Combo lure than with lures 1.5 cm apart and the Combo lure above the AA lure. Similarly, pinning the Combo lure to the roof of the trap was more effective than the use of the holder with the AA lure on the liner. Standardization of lure placement will be important to fully utilize the use of bisexual, multilure monitoring systems for codling moth and likely for other pests.     

Female‐targeted attractant containing pear ester for Synanthedon myopaeformis

When testing pear ester (ethyl‐2,4‐decadienoate) + acetic acid (PEAA) lures to catch codling moths, Cydia pomonella (L.) (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae), in Hungary, significant catches of the apple clearwing moth, Synanthedon myopaeformis (Borkhausen) (Lepidoptera: Sesiidae), were also recorded. This sesiid is one of the most important pests of apple in Europe. Pear ester plus acetic acid lures were attractive to S. myopaeformis no matter whether the two compounds were provided in separate dispensers or mixed together in a single dispenser, and a large percentage (40–80%) of the clearwing moths caught were females. In all cases, traps baited with binary combinations of PEAA caught far more than traps baited with either of the compounds presented alone. Traps with PEAA lures in some tests caught (females and males together) up to ca. 20% of the catch in traps baited with the synthetic apple clearwing moth sex attractant (all males). Consequently, the PEAA lure shows potential for future practical applications as a female‐targeted lure. To our knowledge, this is the first report of attractiveness of a lure containing pear ester for non‐tortricid Lepidoptera. Our finding suggests that the compound may be exploited as a host location stimulus by a wider array of insects than was indicated previously.     

Antennal and behavioural response of codling moth Cydia pomonella to plant volatiles

Identification of host volatile compounds attractive to codling moth Cydia pomonella, a most important insect of apple, will contribute to the development of safe control techniques. Synthetic apple volatiles in two doses were tested for antennal and behavioural activity in codling moth. Female antennae strongly responded to (Z)3‐hexenol, (Z)3‐hexenyl benzoate, (Z)3‐hexenyl hexanoate, (±)‐linalool and E,E‐α‐farnesene. Two other compounds eliciting a strong antennal response were the pear ester, ethyl (E,Z)‐2,4‐decadienoate, and its corresponding aldehyde, E,E‐2,4‐decadienal, which is a component of the larval defence secretion of the European apple sawfly. Attraction of codling moth to compounds eliciting a strong antennal response was tested in a wind tunnel. Male moths were best attracted to a blend of (E,E)‐α‐farnesene, (E)‐beta‐farnesene and ethyl (E,Z)‐2,4‐decadienoate. The aldehyde E,E‐2,4‐decadienal had an antagonistic effect when added to the above mixture.     

Comparison of pheromone trap design and lures for Spodoptera frugiperda in Togo and genetic characterization of moths caught

Fall armyworm, Spodoptera frugiperda (JE Smith) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae), is a pest of grain and vegetable crops endemic to the Western Hemisphere that has recently become widespread in sub‐Saharan Africa and has appeared in India. An important tool for monitoring S. frugiperda in the USA is pheromone trapping, which would be of value for use with African populations. Field experiments were conducted in Togo (West Africa) to compare capture of male fall armyworm using three commercially available pheromone lures and three trap designs. The objectives were to identify optimum trap × lure combinations with respect to sensitivity, specificity, and cost. Almost 400 moths were captured during the experiment. Differences were found in the number of S. frugiperda moths captured in the various trap designs and with the three pheromone lures, and in the number of non‐target moths captured with each lure. The merits of each trap × lure combination are discussed with respect to use in Africa. A nearly equal number of COI‐CS (161) and COI‐RS (158) moths was captured with no differences found in COI marker proportions among traps or lures. However, the diagnostic rice strain marker Tpi was rarely found. Overall, the genetic characterization of the pheromone trap collections indicated a consistent distribution of genetic markers from 2016 to 2017, suggesting a population at or near equilibrium.     

Identification and field testing of sex pheromone components of a Korean population of the allium leafminer,Acrolepiopsis sapporensis

The allium leafminer, Acrolepiopsis sapporensis Matsumura (Lepidoptera: Acrolepiidae), is a pest of Allium species (Liliaceae) in Asia and Hawaii, USA. We identified candidate sex pheromone components in pheromone gland extracts of female moths and field tested the response of male moths to blends with different components and ratios. Gas chromatographic comparison of abdominal tip extracts from both sexes showed three female‐specific components: (Z)‐11‐hexadecenal (Z11‐16:Ald), (Z)‐11‐hexadecenyl acetate (Z11‐16:OAc), and (Z)‐11‐hexadecen‐1‐ol (Z11‐16:OH). These compounds were identified by mass spectral analysis of natural pheromone components and dimethyldisulfide adducts, and retention index comparisons with synthetic standards. The average ratio of three components, Z11‐16:Ald, Z11‐16:OAc, and Z11‐16:OH, in female extract was 33:100:14. Field trapping experiments indicated that all three components were essential for maximal attraction of male moths. Traps baited with a ternary blend mimicking the blend found in the pheromone gland extracts caught significantly more males than traps baited with caged live females. Increasing doses of the pheromone blend in the lures from 0.01 to 1.0 mg increased catches of male A. sapporensis.