Guard Cells Possess a Calcium-Dependent Protein Kinase That Phosphorylates the KAT1 Potassium Channel

Increasing evidence suggests that changes in cytosolic Ca²⁺ levels and phosphorylation play important roles in the regulation of stomatal aperture and as ion transporters of guard cells. However, protein kinases responsible for Ca²⁺ signaling in guard cells remain to be identified. Using biochemical approaches, we have identified a Ca²⁺-dependent protein kinase with a calmodulin-like domain (CDPK) in guard cell protoplasts of Vicia faba. Both autophosphorylation and catalytic activity of CDPK are Ca²⁺ dependent. CDPK exhibits a Ca²⁺-induced electrophoretic mobility shift and its Ca²⁺-dependent catalytic activity can be inhibited by the calmodulin antagonists trifluoperazine and N-(6-aminohexyl)-5-chloro-1-naphthalenesulfonamide. Antibodies to soybean CDPKα cross-react with CDPK. Micromolar Ca²⁺ concentrations stimulate phosphorylation of several proteins from guard cells; cyclosporin A, a specific inhibitor of the Ca²⁺-dependent protein phosphatase calcineurin enhances the Ca²⁺-dependent phosphorylation of several soluble proteins. CDPK from guard cells phosphorylates the K⁺ channel KAT1 protein in a Ca²⁺-dependent manner. These results suggest that CDPK may be an important component of Ca²⁺ signaling in guard cells.     

Calcium-Dependent Protein Phosphorylation May Mediate the Gibberellic Acid Response in Barley Aleurone

Peptide substrates of well-defined protein kinases were microinjected into aleurone protoplasts of barley (Hordeum vulgare L. cv Himalaya) to inhibit, and therefore identify, protein kinase-regulated events in the transduction of the gibberellin (GA) and abscisic acid signals. Syntide-2, a substrate designed for Ca²⁺- and calmodulin (CaM)-dependent kinases, selectively inhibited the GA response, leaving constitutive and abscisic acid-regulated events unaffected. Microinjection of syntide did not affect the GA-induced increase in cytosolic [Ca²⁺], suggesting that it inhibited GA action downstream of the Ca²⁺ signal. When photoaffinity-labeled syntide-2 was electroporated into protoplasts and cross-linked to interacting proteins in situ, it selectively labeled proteins of approximately 30 and 55 kD. A 54-kD, soluble syntide-2 phosphorylating protein kinase was detected in aleurone cells. This kinase was activated by Ca²⁺ and was CaM independent, but was inhibited by the CaM antagonist N-(6-aminohexyl)-5-chloro-1-naphthalene-sulfonamide (250 μm), suggesting that it was a CaM-domain protein kinase-like activity. These results suggest that syntide-2 inhibits the GA response of the aleurone via an interaction with this kinase, implicating the 54-kD kinase as a Ca²⁺-dependent regulator of the GA response in these cells.     

烟草GA合成调控转录因子RSG应答甲醇和乙醇刺激的分子机理初探

为了考察甲醇或乙醇促进植物生长与赤霉素(GA)的合成关系,该研究在MS固体培养基中培养并添加外源GA和GA合成抑制剂多效唑(PAC),分析其对2mmol/L甲醇或乙醇促进烟草生长的影响及GA合成调控转录因子RSG(for repression of shoot growth)应答甲醇或乙醇刺激的分子机理。结果显示:(1)外源添加GA可增强甲醇或乙醇对烟草生长的刺激作用,而添加PAC却抑制甲醇和乙醇对烟草生长的刺激作用。(2)14-3-3蛋白与RSG结合抑制RSG进入细胞核及其转录调控活性;甲醇和乙醇诱导烟草14-3-3基因的转录和表达,对RSG蛋白表达也有诱导作用。(3)甲醇和乙醇可降低14-3-3蛋白与RSG的相互作用,同时增强RSG与GA20ox1启动子的结合。研究表明,甲醇和乙醇刺激烟草的生长可能通过增加RSG表达,且减弱RSG与14-3-3蛋白的结合来增加RSG细胞核定位作用,从而增强RSG与GA20ox1启动子的结合,最终增加GA的合成,从而促进烟草的生长,这可能是甲醇和乙醇促进烟草生长的一种重要的分子机制。     

Identification of PTEN at the ER and MAMs and its regulation of Ca2+ signaling and apoptosis in a protein phosphatase-dependent manner

The tumor suppressor activity of PTEN (phosphatase and tensin homolog deleted on chromosome 10) is thought to be largely attributable to its lipid phosphatase activity. PTEN dephosphorylates the lipid second messenger phosphatidylinositol 3,4,5-trisphosphate to directly antagonize the phosphoinositide 3-kinase-Akt pathway and prevent the activating phosphorylation of Akt. PTEN has also other proposed mechanisms of action, including a poorly characterized protein phosphatase activity, protein–protein interactions, as well as emerging functions in different compartment of the cells such as nucleus and mitochondria. We show here that a fraction of PTEN protein localizes to the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and mitochondria-associated membranes (MAMs), signaling domains involved in calcium (²⁺) transfer from the ER to mitochondria and apoptosis induction. We demonstrate that PTEN silencing impairs ER Ca²⁺ release, lowers cytosolic and mitochondrial Ca²⁺ transients and decreases cellular sensitivity to Ca²⁺-mediated apoptotic stimulation. Specific targeting of PTEN to the ER is sufficient to enhance ER-to-mitochondria Ca²⁺ transfer and sensitivity to apoptosis. PTEN localization at the ER is further increased during Ca²⁺-dependent apoptosis induction. Importantly, PTEN interacts with the inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate receptors (IP3Rs) and this correlates with the reduction in their phosphorylation and increased Ca²⁺ release. We propose that ER-localized PTEN regulates Ca²⁺ release from the ER in a protein phosphatase-dependent manner that counteracts Akt-mediated reduction in Ca²⁺ release via IP3Rs. These findings provide new insights into the mechanisms and the extent of PTEN tumor-suppressive functions, highlighting new potential strategies for therapeutic intervention.     

Inhibitory Phosphorylation of GSK-3 by CaMKII Couples Depolarization to Neuronal Survival

Glycogen synthase kinase-3 (GSK-3) plays a critical role in neuronal apoptosis. The two mammalian isoforms of the kinase, GSK-3α and GSK-3β, are inhibited by phosphorylation at Ser-21 and Ser-9, respectively. Depolarization, which is vital for neuronal survival, causes both an increase in Ser-21/9 phosphorylation and an inhibition of GSK-3α/β. However, the role of GSK-3 phosphorylation in depolarization-dependent neuron survival and the signaling pathway contributing to GSK-3 phosphorylation during depolarization remain largely unknown. Using several approaches, we showed that both isoforms of GSK-3 are important for mediating neuronal apoptosis. Nonphosphorylatable GSK-3α/β mutants (S21A/S9A) promoted apoptosis, whereas a peptide encompassing Ser-9 of GSK-3β protected neurons in a phosphorylation-dependent manner; these results indicate a critical role for Ser-21/9 phosphorylation on depolarization-dependent neuron survival. We found that Ser-21/9 phosphorylation of GSK-3 was mediated by Ca²⁺/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II (CaMKII) but not by Akt/PKB, PKA, or p90^RSK. CaMKII associated with and phosphorylated GSK-3α/β. Furthermore, the pro-survival effect of CaMKII was mediated by GSK-3 phosphorylation and inactivation. These findings identify a novel Ca²⁺/calmodulin/CaMKII/GSK-3 pathway that couples depolarization to neuronal survival.     

A function for tyrosine phosphorylation of type 1 inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate receptor in lymphocyte activation

Sustained elevation of intracellular calcium by Ca²⁺ release–activated Ca²⁺ channels is required for lymphocyte activation. Sustained Ca²⁺ entry requires endoplasmic reticulum (ER) Ca²⁺ depletion and prolonged activation of inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate receptor (IP₃R)/Ca²⁺ release channels. However, a major isoform in lymphocyte ER, IP3R1, is inhibited by elevated levels of cytosolic Ca²⁺, and the mechanism that enables the prolonged activation of IP₃R1 required for lymphocyte activation is unclear. We show that IP₃R1 binds to the scaffolding protein linker of activated T cells and colocalizes with the T cell receptor during activation, resulting in persistent phosphorylation of IP₃R1 at Tyr353. This phosphorylation increases the sensitivity of the channel to activation by IP₃ and renders the channel less sensitive to Ca²⁺-induced inactivation. Expression of a mutant IP3R1-Y353F channel in lymphocytes causes defective Ca²⁺ signaling and decreased nuclear factor of activated T cells activation. Thus, tyrosine phosphorylation of IP3R1-Y353 may have an important function in maintaining elevated cytosolic Ca²⁺ levels during lymphocyte activation.     

Phosphorylation of a putative myosin light chain inChara by calcium-dependent protein kinase

Summary Ca²⁺-dependent protein kinase (CDPK) has been proposed to mediate inhibition by Ca²⁺ of cytoplasmic streaming in the green algaChara. We have identified the in vivo substrate(s) of CDPK inChara by using vacuolar perfusion of individual internodal cells with [-³²P]ATP. Phosphorylation of several polypeptides is enhanced when perfusions are performed at 10^–4M free Ca²⁺ compared to <10^–9M free Ca²⁺. The Ca²⁺-stimulated phosphorylation of these proteins is inhibited by the presence of a monoclonal antibody to soybean CDPK. One of these proteins is 16 to 18kDa and is recognized by an antibody against gizzard myosin light chains. These results demonstrate that inChara, several polypeptides are phophorylated by CDPK and one of these proteins has been tentatively identified as a myosin light chain. These observations support the hypothesis that Ca²⁺-regulated phosphorylation of myosin is involved in the regulation of cytoplasmic streaming.Abbreviations CDPK calcium-dependent protein kinase - mAb monoclonal antibody     

Pacemaking through Ca2+ stores interacting as coupled oscillators via membrane depolarization

This study presents an investigation of pacemaker mechanisms underlying lymphatic vasomotion. We tested the hypothesis that active inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate receptor (IP₃R)-operated Ca²⁺ stores interact as coupled oscillators to produce near-synchronous Ca²⁺ release events and associated pacemaker potentials, this driving action potentials and constrictions of lymphatic smooth muscle. Application of endothelin 1 (ET-1), an agonist known to enhance synthesis of IP₃, to quiescent lymphatic smooth muscle syncytia first enhanced spontaneous Ca²⁺ transients and/or intracellular Ca²⁺ waves. Larger near-synchronous Ca²⁺ transients then occurred leading to global synchronous Ca²⁺ transients associated with action potentials and resultant vasomotion. In contrast, blockade of L-type Ca²⁺ channels with nifedipine prevented ET-1 from inducing near-synchronous Ca²⁺ transients and resultant action potentials, leaving only asynchronous Ca²⁺ transients and local Ca²⁺ waves. These data were well simulated by a model of lymphatic smooth muscle with: 1), oscillatory Ca²⁺ release from IP₃R-operated Ca²⁺ stores, which causes depolarization; 2), L-type Ca²⁺ channels; and 3), gap junctions between cells. Stimulation of the stores caused global pacemaker activity through coupled oscillator-based entrainment of the stores. Membrane potential changes and positive feedback by L-type Ca²⁺ channels to produce more store activity were fundamental to this process providing long-range electrochemical coupling between the Ca²⁺ store oscillators. We conclude that lymphatic pacemaking is mediated by coupled oscillator-based interactions between active Ca²⁺ stores. These are weakly coupled by inter- and intracellular diffusion of store activators and strongly coupled by membrane potential. Ca²⁺ store-based pacemaking is predicted for cellular systems where: 1), oscillatory Ca²⁺ release induces depolarization; 2), membrane depolarization provides positive feedback to induce further store Ca²⁺ release; and 3), cells are interconnected. These conditions are met in a surprisingly large number of cellular systems including gastrointestinal, lymphatic, urethral, and vascular tissues, and in heart pacemaker cells.     

CDPKs CPK6 and CPK3 Function in ABA Regulation of Guard Cell S-Type Anion- and Ca2+- Permeable Channels and Stomatal Closure

Abscisic acid (ABA) signal transduction has been proposed to utilize cytosolic Ca²⁺ in guard cell ion channel regulation. However, genetic mutants in Ca²⁺ sensors that impair guard cell or plant ion channel signaling responses have not been identified, and whether Ca²⁺-independent ABA signaling mechanisms suffice for a full response remains unclear. Calcium-dependent protein kinases (CDPKs) have been proposed to contribute to central signal transduction responses in plants. However, no Arabidopsis CDPK gene disruption mutant phenotype has been reported to date, likely due to overlapping redundancies in CDPKs. Two Arabidopsis guard cell–expressed CDPK genes, CPK3 and CPK6, showed gene disruption phenotypes. ABA and Ca²⁺ activation of slow-type anion channels and, interestingly, ABA activation of plasma membrane Ca²⁺-permeable channels were impaired in independent alleles of single and double cpk3cpk6 mutant guard cells. Furthermore, ABA- and Ca²⁺-induced stomatal closing were partially impaired in these cpk3cpk6 mutant alleles. However, rapid-type anion channel current activity was not affected, consistent with the partial stomatal closing response in double mutants via a proposed branched signaling network. Imposed Ca²⁺ oscillation experiments revealed that Ca²⁺-reactive stomatal closure was reduced in CDPK double mutant plants. However, long-lasting Ca²⁺-programmed stomatal closure was not impaired, providing genetic evidence for a functional separation of these two modes of Ca²⁺-induced stomatal closing. Our findings show important functions of the CPK6 and CPK3 CDPKs in guard cell ion channel regulation and provide genetic evidence for calcium sensors that transduce stomatal ABA signaling.