Influence of cargo size on Ran and energy requirements for nuclear protein import

Previous work has shown that the transport of some small protein cargoes through the nuclear pore complex (NPC) can occur in vitro in the absence of nucleoside triphosphate hydrolysis. We now demonstrate that in the importin alpha/beta and transportin import pathways, efficient in vitro transport of large proteins, in contrast to smaller proteins, requires hydrolyzable GTP and the small GTPase Ran. Morphological and biochemical analysis indicates that the presence of Ran and GTP allows large cargo to efficiently cross central regions of the NPC. We further demonstrate that this function of RanGTP at least partly involves its direct binding to importin beta and transportin. We suggest that RanGTP functions in these pathways to promote the transport of large cargo by enhancing the ability of import complexes to traverse diffusionally restricted areas of the NPC.     

Sugar-dependent nuclear import of glycosylated proteins in living cells

The nuclear import of proteins larger than Mr 40,000 depends on the presence of a nuclear localization signal (NLS) corresponding either to a short peptide sequence or to defined sugars. The sugar-dependent nuclear import was previously evidenced by using glycosylated proteins (neoglycoproteins) introduced into the cytosol of cells either by electroporation or on digitonin-permeabilization and was shown to be distinct from the peptide NLS-mediated pathway. In this work, we used a microinjection approach to compare the two nuclear import pathways in intact living cells. The intracellular localization of fluorescent NLS-BSA or Glc-BSA injected into the cytosol was analyzed by confocal microscopy. Novel differences between the two mechanisms were evidenced. First, Glc-BSA migrated less efficiently into the nucleus than NLS-BSA because of a cytosolic retention. Second, the import of neoglycoproteins was not affected by microinjection of antinuclear import factor importin/karyopherin beta antibodies, whereas the NLS-dependent transport was completely abolished. Third, the nuclear import activity of Glc-BSA was found to be cell cycle-dependent in thymidine and hydroxyurea-treated HeLa cells, with greatest efficiency during G1/S transition and S phases, whereas NLS-BSA was imported with the same efficiency during any stage of the cell cycle but the G2 phase. Fourth, we show that after mitosis, nonglycosylated BSA was excluded from the nucleus contrary to Glc-BSA. In both cases, the nuclear import signals (NLS or alpha-glucoside) were grafted onto BSA; such tools led to a clear-cut conclusion, which will reach a full physiological significance when they are confirmed in the case of endogenous (glyco)proteins.     

The C-terminal extension of the small GTPase Ran is essential for defining the GDP-bound form

The small GTPase Ran controls cellular processes by interacting with members of the importin beta family that bind specifically to the GTP-bound form of Ran, and this regulates the interaction between importin beta-like proteins and cellular factors. The structures of RanGDP and RanGTP are markedly different, and major structural changes are found in the switch I and switch II regions and in the C-terminal extension of Ran. Here, we show that a deletion mutant of Ran, lacking the entire C-terminal extension, termed Ran Core, can bind to importin beta in its GDP-bound form with high affinity. The ability of Ran CoreGDP to dissociate cargo from importin beta results in an import block in digitonin-permeabilized cells and leads to microtubule aster formation in mitotic Xenopus egg extract. As for importin beta, also transportin, importin 7 and exportin-t can no longer discriminate efficiently between the two nucleotide-bound forms of Ran Core. In contrast, a significant reduction in affinity of the RanGDP-binding protein NTF2 for Ran CoreGDP is observed, indicating that the switch regions have changed conformation in the Ran Core mutant. Our results demonstrate that the C terminus of Ran is a major determinant of the state of Ran, and that removal of this allows the GDP-bound form to adopt a GTP-like conformation, thereby creating a constitutively active protein.     

Cellular stresses induce the nuclear accumulation of importin alpha and cause a conventional nuclear import block

We report here that importin alpha accumulates reversibly in the nucleus in response to cellular stresses including UV irradiation, oxidative stress, and heat shock. The nuclear accumulation of importin alpha appears to be triggered by a collapse in the Ran gradient, resulting in the suppression of the nuclear export of importin alpha. In addition, nuclear retention and the importin beta/Ran-independent import of importin alpha also facilitate its rapid nuclear accumulation. The findings herein show that the classical nuclear import pathway is down-regulated via the removal of importin alpha from the cytoplasm in response to stress. Moreover, whereas the nuclear accumulation of heat shock cognate 70 is more sensitive to heat shock than the other stresses, importin alpha is able to accumulate in the nucleus at all the stress conditions tested. These findings suggest that the stress-induced nuclear accumulation of importin alpha can be involved in a common physiological response to various stress conditions.     

Cytosolic import factor- and Ran-independent nuclear transport of ribosomal protein L5

Ribosomal protein L5 is a shuttling protein that, in Xenopus oocytes, is involved in the nucleocytoplasmic transport of 5S rRNA. As demonstrated earlier, L5 contains three independent nuclear import signals (NLSs), which function in oocytes as well as in somatic cells. Upon physical separation, these NLSs differ in respect to their capacity to bind to nuclear import factors in vitro and to mediate the nuclear import of a heterologous RNP in vivo. As reported in this communication, analysis of the in vitro nuclear import activity of these three NLSs reveals that they also differ in respect to their requirements for cytosolic import factors and Ran. Nuclear import mediated by the N-terminal and the central NLS depends on cytosolic import factor(s) and Ran, whereas import via the C-terminal NLS occurs independently from these factors. Thus, the presence of multiple NLSs in ribosomal protein L5 appears to allow for efficient nuclear transport via utilisation of multiple, mechanistically different import pathways.     

A synthetic peptide bearing the HIV-1 integrase 161-173 amino acid residues mediates active nuclear import and binding to importin alpha: characterization of a functional nuclear localization signal

In spite of recent efforts to elucidate the nuclear import pathway of the human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) integrase protein (IN), its exact route as well as the domains that mediate its import are still unknown. Here, we show that a synthetic peptide bearing the amino acid residues 161-173 of the HIV-1 IN is able to mediate active import of covalently attached bovine serum albumin molecules into nuclei of permeabilized cells and therefore was designated as nuclear localization signal-IN (NLS(IN)). A peptide bearing residues 161-173 in the reversed order showed low karyophilic properties. Active nuclear import was demonstrated by using fluorescence microscopy and a quantitative ELISA-based assay system. Nuclear import was blocked by addition of the NLS(IN) peptide, as well as by a peptide bearing the NLS of the simian virus 40 T-antigen (NLS-SV40). The NLS(IN) peptide partially inhibited nuclear import mediated by the full-length recombinant HIV-1 IN protein, indicating that the sequence of the NLS(IN) is involved in mediating nuclear import of the IN protein. The NLS(IN) as well as the full-length IN protein interacted specifically with importin alpha, binding of which was blocked by the NLS(IN) peptide itself as well as by the NLS-SV40.     

Nuclear protein import, but not mRNA export, is defective in all Saccharomyces cerevisiae mutants that produce temperature-sensitive forms of the Ran GTPase homologue Gsp1p

A series of ts mutations in the GSP1 gene of Saccharomyces cerevisiae was isolated by error-prone PCR. A total of 25 ts gsp1 strains was obtained. Each of these mutants showed between one and seven different amino acid alterations. In several of these ts gsp1 strains, the same amino acid residues in Gsp1p were repeatedly mutated, indicating that our screen for ts gsp1 mutations was saturating. All of the ts gsp1 strains isolated had a defect in nuclear protein import, but only 16 of the 25 ts gsp1 strains had a defect in mRNA export. Thus, Gsp1p is suggested to be directly involved in nuclear protein import, but not in mRNA export. Following release from α-factor arrest, 11 of the ts gsp1 mutants arrested in G1; the remainder did not show any specific cell-cycle arrest, at 37° C, the nonpermissive temperature. While the mutants that are defective in both mRNA export and protein import have a tendency to arrest in G1, there was no clear correlation between the cell cycle phenotype and the defects in mRNA export and nuclear protein import. Based on this, we assume that Ran/Gsp1p GTPase regulates the cell cycle and the nucleus/cytosol exchange of macromolecules through interactions with effectors that were independent of each other, and are differentially affected by mutation. Received: 30 June 1997 / Accepted: 23 October 1997     

A monoclonal antibody monitoring band 3 modifications in human red blood cells

Morphologic and methabolic erythrocyte modifications are thought to be the basis of cell removal from circulating blood. A significant role has been ascribed to the immunological network which may remove aged or misshapen erythrocytes through the binding of specific autoantibodies. Along this line recent observations indicate that a senescence antigen appears in consequence of postsynthetic modifications of band 3, one of the most important erythrocyte membrane proteins, which accounts for many functional activities of the red cells. On this basis, we raised a mouse hybridoma anti-band 3 monoclonal antibody (B6 MoAb) of the IgG2a class which monitors band 3 differences among normal red blood cells separated by Percoll density gradient. These differences are outlined by the decrease of B6 MoAb binding to band 3 monomer, the appearance of an 80–90 kDa new band, lighter than band 3, and the increase of low molecular weight fragments in the 4.5 region. The B6 MoAb appears to be very useful in detecting modifications of band 3 since it bind to a 19 kDa Chy-Try fragment estimated to be sensitive to aging.Abbreviations PBS Phosphate Buffer Saline - MoAb Monoclonal Antibody - RBCs Red Blood Cells - PMSF Phenylmethylsulphonyl Fluoride - PVC Polyvinyl Chloride - ACD Acid Citrate Dextrose - HMWP High Molecular Weight Polymers - Chy-Try Chymotrypsin-Trypsin Digested - i.p. intraperitoneum - ELISA Enzyme Linked Immuno Sorbent Assay - Hepes 4-(2-Hydroxyethyl)-piperazine-1-ethane-sulfonic acid. Enzymes: trypsin (EC 3.4.21.4), chymotrypsin (EC 3.4.21.1), neuraminidase (EC 3.2.1.18)     

A monoclonal antibody reactive with an activated ras protein expressing valine at position 12

Activated ras transforming genes have been described in a variety of neoplasms and encode 21,000-Dalton (p21) proteins with amino acid substitutions at positions 12, 13, and 61. In this report we describe a monoclonal antibody designated DWP that reacts specifically with synthetic dodecapeptides containing valine at position 12, to a lesser extent with peptides containing cysteine at position 12 and not with peptides containing glycine, arginine, serine, aspartic acid, glutamic acid or alanine at the same position. Western blot and immunoperoxidase studies showed that DWP specifically reacts with activated rasH or rasK proteins in NIH cells transformed by DNA from the human carcinoma cells that encode valine at position 12. DWP did not react with normal p21s encoding glycine at position 12, nor with activated p21s encoding aspartic acid, glutamic acid, arginine, serine, or cysteine at position 12. A survey of human tumor cell lines demonstrated that DWP reacted with the human bladder carcinoma cell line T24 but not with human tumor cell lines previously shown to contain other activating mutations at positions 12 or 61. DWP and perhaps additional antibodies that specifically react with alterations at positions 12 or 61 of the ras protein may be valuable in determining the presence and frequency of activated ras proteins in human malignancy.     

The nuclear localization of SET mediated by impalpha3/impbeta attenuates its cytosolic toxicity in neurons

SET is a multi-functional protein in proliferating cells. Some of the proposed functions of SET suggest an important nuclear role. However, the nuclear import pathway of SET is also unknown and the function of SET in neurons is unclear. Presently, using cortical neurons, we report that the nuclear import of SET is mediated by an impalpha/impbeta-dependent pathway. Nuclear localization signal, (168)KRSSQTQNKASRKR(181), in SET interacts with impalpha3, which recruits impbeta to form a ternary complex, resulting in efficient transportation of SET into nucleus. By in vitro nuclear import assay based on digitonin-permeabilized neurons, we further demonstrated that the nuclear import of SET relies on Ran GTPase. We provide evidence that this nuclear localization of SET is important in neuronal survival. Under basal conditions, SET is predominately nuclear. However, upon death induced by genotoxic stress, endogenous SET decreases in the nucleus and increases in the cytoplasm. Consistent with a toxic role of SET in the cytoplasm, targeted expression of SET to the cytoplasm exacerbates death compared to wild type SET expression which is protective following DNA damage. Taken together, our results indicate that SET is imported into the nucleus through its association with impalpha3/impbeta, and that localization of SET is important in regulation of neuronal death.     

Gradient of increasing affinity of importin beta for nucleoporins along the pathway of nuclear import

Nuclear import and export signals on macromolecules mediate directional, receptor-driven transport through the nuclear pore complex (NPC) by a process that is suggested to involve the sequential binding of transport complexes to different nucleoporins. The directionality of transport appears to be partly determined by the nucleocytoplasmic compartmentalization of components of the Ran GTPase system. We have analyzed whether the asymmetric localization of discrete nucleoporins can also contribute to transport directionality. To this end, we have used quantitative solid phase binding analysis to determine the affinity of an importin beta cargo complex for Nup358, the Nup62 complex, and Nup153, which are in the cytoplasmic, central, and nucleoplasmic regions of the NPC, respectively. These nucleoporins are proposed to provide progressively more distal binding sites for importin beta during import. Our results indicate that the importin beta transport complex binds to nucleoporins with progressively increasing affinity as the complex moves from Nup358 to the Nup62 complex and to Nup153. Antibody inhibition studies support the possibility that importin beta moves from Nup358 to Nup153 via the Nup62 complex during import. These results indicate that nucleoporins themselves, as well as the nucleocytoplasmic compartmentalization of the Ran system, are likely to play an important role in conferring directionality to nuclear protein import.     

A model of interorganelle monoclonal antibody transport and secretion in mouse hybridoma cells

A three compartment model (ER --> Golgi --> extracellular medium) is used here to describe the interorganelle transport and final secretion of an IgG(2a) monoclonal antibody (MAb) in 9.2.27 murine hybridoma cells. Model simulations of pulse-chase and continuous labeling experiments are used to gain a better understanding of the kinetics of MAb interorganelle traffic. Simulation results for the continuous labeling case compare well with experimental data obtained during continuous labeling of 9.2.27 hybridoma cells. Incorporation of this compartmental transport model into our previously developed model of MAb synthesis and assembly can provide a useful tool for analyzing the dynamics and regulation of the complete antibody secretory pathway under different growth and/or nutritional conditions.     

A non-canonical transferable signal mediates nuclear import of simian immunodeficiency virus Vpx protein

Protein transport into the nucleus is generally considered to involve specific nuclear localization signals (NLS) though it is becoming increasingly evident that efficient and well controlled import of proteins which lack a canonical NLS also occurs in cells. Vpx, a 112 amino acid protein from human immunodeficiency virus type 2 (HIV-2) and the closely related simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) is one such protein, which does not have an identifiable canonical NLS and is yet efficiently imported to the nuclear compartment. Here we report that Vpx protein is imported to the nucleus independently of virus-encoded cofactors. When fusions of truncated versions of Vpx with full-length beta-galactosidase (beta-Gal) were tested, the region from Vpx 61 to 80 was found to be sufficient to mediate the import of the heterologous cytoplasmic protein to the nucleus. Inactivation of Vpx NLS precluded nuclear import of Vpx and reduced virus replication in non-dividing macrophage cultures, even when functional integrase and Gag matrix proteins implicated in viral nuclear import were present. Importantly, we identified and characterized a novel type of 20 amino acid transferable nuclear import signal in Vpx that is distinct from other import signals described. In addition, we show that the minimal nuclear targeting domain identified here overlaps with helical domain III (amino acid (aa) 64-82) and the structural integrity of this helical motif is critical for the nuclear import of Vpx. Taken together, these data suggest that Vpx is imported to the nucleus via a novel import pathway that is dependent on its 20 amino acid unique nuclear targeting signal, and that the nuclear import property of Vpx is critical for the optimal virus replication in non-dividing cells such as macrophages.     

Localization and partial characterization of a rat ovarian granulose cell protein with a monoclonal antibody

Summry— Hybridoma cell lines were obtained from mouse splenocytes sensitized to granulosa cells collected from rat ovaries after gonadotropin stimulation. A monoclonal antibody (5G5) was obtained which reacted with granulosa cells and showed a positive reaction with serum-free conditioned medium containing granulosa cell secreted proteins. Immoblotting of the conditioned medium and light- and electron-microscopic immunocytochemistry of rat ovary show that mAb 5G5 is directed against a 59-kDa protein which is located on the plasma membrane of granulosa cells. Furthermore, the immunoreactivity of the granulosa cells depends both on the degree of follicle development and on the position of the granulosa cells within the follicles. Strong immunoreactivity was observed in the innermost granulosa cell layers, close to the oocyte and the antral cavity. The results obtained show that mAb 5G5 is a useful marker of a 59-kDa granulosa cell protein which might be of importance for the follicle and the occyte maturation.     

Targeting endogenous nuclear antigens by electrotransfer of monoclonal antibodies in living cells

Antibodies are valuable tools for functional studies in vitro, but their use in living cells remains challenging because they do not naturally cross the cell membrane. Here, we present a simple and highly efficient method for the intracytoplasmic delivery of any antibody into cultured cells. By following the fate of monoclonal antibodies that bind to nuclear antigens, it was possible to image endogenous targets and to show that inhibitory antibodies are able to induce cell growth suppression or cell death. Our electrotransfer system allowed the cancer cells we studied to be transduced without loss of viability and may have applications for a variety of intracellular immuno-interventions.     

Visualization and molecular analysis of nuclear import of protein kinase CK2 subunits in living cells

We have generated fusion proteins between the subunits of CK2 and GFP and characterized their behaviour in living cells. The expressed fusion proteins were functional and interacted with endogenous CK2. Imaging of NIH3T3 cells expressing low level of GFP-CK2 or GFP-CK2 showed that both proteins were mostly nuclear in interphase. Both CK2 subunits contain nuclear localization domains that target them independently to the nucleus. Once in the nucleus, both subunits diffused rapidly in the nucleoplasm. In mitotic cells, CK2 subunits were dispersed throughout the cytoplasm and were not associated to chromatin. Our data are compatible with the idea that each subunit can translocate individually to the nucleus to interact with each other or with important cellular partners. Understanding the molecular mechanisms which regulate the dynamic localization of CK2 subunits will be of central importance.     

Preparation and characterization of a human aurora-A kinase monoclonal antibody

We have developed monoclonal antibodies against the human aurora-A serine/threonine kinase. After immunization of a mouse, a fusion was performed to obtain hybridomas that were selected because they produced immunoglobulin positively reacting against the protein used for immunization. We isolated one particular monoclonal that we named 35C1 using a series of selective assays. The first criteria of the screen for monoclonals was an Elisa (Enzyme Linked Immunosorbant Assay) assay performed in 96-well plates against the purified recombinant histidine-tagged aurora-A. The second was a positive Western blot against the same recombinant protein. The third criteria was a positive western blot against an HeLa cell extract, the selected monoclonal should detect only one protein migrating at 46 kDa (kiloDalton) on SDS (Sodium Dodecyl Sulfate)-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. Finally, the monoclonal had to bind to duplicated centrosomes and spindle poles in human MCF7 cultured cells by indirect immunofluorescence. At this stage several monoclonals were still positive. We then increased the selectivity by searching for antibodies that were able to cross-react with the mouse aurora-A kinase both by western blot and indirect immunofluorescence. We selected and cloned the 35C1 hybridoma to produce the antibody. Further characterization of the 35C1 antibody revealed that it was able to immunoprecipitate the kinase, that it did not inhibit the aurora-A kinase activity and consequently could be used to measure the aurora-A kinase activity in vivo after immunoprecipitation.     

SIVp27单克隆抗体的制备和鉴定

[目的]建立SIVp27杂交瘤细胞株,并对其分泌的SIVp27单克隆抗体进行初步鉴定。[方法]使用基因重组的SIVp27蛋白免疫BALB/c小鼠,采用杂交瘤技术使用半固体培养基法建立杂交瘤细胞株,制备单克隆抗体。通过染色体核型对杂交瘤细胞株进行鉴定;采用Westernblot、免疫荧光法、酶联免疫吸附法确定单克隆抗体的交叉反应性、相对亲和力、抗原识别表位、免疫球蛋白的类型和亚类,对单克隆抗体进行鉴定。[结果]获得四株可稳定分泌SIVp27单克隆抗体的杂交瘤细胞,1C3、2B6为IgG1类,2E12为IgG2b类,3G3为IgG2a类。四株单抗均能识别SIV的p27蛋白,与逆转录病毒SRV、STLV无交叉反应,2B6、2E12与HIVp24有交叉反应。免疫荧光法检测腹水效价为1:10240~40960。1C3、2B6、2E12、3G3染色体平均数分别为103、97、96、101。2E12与3G3识别不同的抗原表位。[结论]成功地制备出四株SIVp27单克隆抗体,均具有良好的特异性和亲和力,为进一步建立免疫分析方法,进行SIV/SAIDS及其艾滋病相关研究,奠定了基础。