Vocal communication of wild bonnet macaques (Macaca radiata)

Field observations and spectrographic analyses of sound recordings of South Indian bonnet macaques revealed a vocal repertoire of at least 25 basic patterns. The repertoire consists of well separated sound classes and acoustic categories connected by structural intergradation. Besides structural variations within and between different elements of the repertoire, the vocal system ofMacaca radiata is characterized by regular combinations of particular basic patterns. These combinations occurred not only between calls of similar structure and function but also between calls usually emitted in entirely different social contexts. According to the qualitative analysis, sex-specific asymmetries of the vocal behaviour were less pronounced than age-dependent characteristics. The comparison of clear call vocalizations ofMacaca radiata andM. fuscata revealed significant species-specific differences on the structural and the behavioural level. Evaluations of the structural features of alarm calls of various macaque species imply marked differences between members of thefascicularis group andsinica group on one hand and thesilenus group andarctoides group on the other.     

Normal hematological and plasma biochemical parameters of the captive bonnet monkey (Maccaca radiata)

The bonnet monkey is being increasingly used as a model in biomedical research. However, unlike the rhesus monkey, very little information on the hematological and biochemical characteristics of blood plasma is available. Comparative data on plasma biochemical parameters vis-a-vis rhesus and human is essential for utilization of this species in biomedical research. Efforts were made to determine selected serum enzymes, glucose, triglycerides, blood urea nitrogen, creatinine, total protein, albumin, cholesterol, bilirubin, calcium, phosphorus, sodium, magnessium, potassium and total erythrocyte count, total leukocyte count, hemoglobin, PCV, ESR, and differential leukocyte count in groups of juvenile and adult bonnet monkeys of both sexes. The monkeys exhibited similar values for all the parameters in comparison to rhesus and human except for alkaline phosphatase. The value for alkaline phosphatase was 3–5 fold higher when compared to concentrations seen in rhesus monkeys and human beings. The investigation also describes the variations seen between adults and juveniles, as well as between the sexes. The data presented is valuable for scientists using this species of monkey as a human surrogate model.     

Inter-population differences in the time budgets of bonnet monkeys (Macaca radiata)

Time budgets for five major activities viz., Passive Sitting, Locomotion, Foraging, Social Behaviour, and Self-directed Behaviours were recorded for bonnet monkeys inhabiting forest, urban, and rural habitats. The time budgets were further classified into those of various age-sex classes. Significant inter-population differences were found in group size, social behaviour, foraging, and locomotion, which are discussed in relation to the habitat features.     

Behavioral changes across the menstrual cycle in isosexual groups of bonnet macaques (Macaca radiata)

Behavioral changes were systematically recorded across menstrual cycles over a six-month period in two laboratory-housed isosexual triads ofMacaca radiata (bonnet macaque). The purpose of this study was to determine whether females of this species demonstrate premenstrual behavioral changes as reported for humans, or heightened levels of aggression during the first half of their cycle as reported in some species of Old World monkeys. A total of 34 menstrual cycles were divided into five segments including two follicular, one periovulatory, and two luteal phases. The mean frequencies of behaviors were analyzed according to phase, rank, and time since triad formation, for a total of 34 menstrual cycles. There was no evidence of an increase in spatial separation during the premenstrual phase or during any other phase of the menstrual cycle. Although contact aggression did not show an increase during the early follicular half of the cycle (phases 1 and 2) or during the phase of the cycle immediately preceding menses (phase 5), contact aggression did show two peaks: one in the early-mid luteal half of the cycle (phase 4) and a peak in the mid-late follicular (phase 2). The non-aggressive hierarchical behaviors did not follow the same pattern as contact aggression. Instead the distribution of these behaviors showed a pattern similar to that of estrogen levels across the cycle. Subjects’ location in pen also varied significantly according to cycle phase: subjects spent more time on perches during the premenstrual phase and more time on the pen floor during the periovulatory phase. The increase in contact aggressive behaviors during the early-mid follicular phase and the mid-late luteal phase does not suggest a simple hormonal correlate as these two phases are characterized by high levels of estrogen and progesterone, respectively. However, the distribution of non-aggressive hierarchical behaviors suggest that this category of agonistic interaction may be related to mating competition among females of this species. Results are discussed with reference to the social behavior and promiscuous mating strategy ofM. radiata. The findings in this present study are compared with previous studies utilizing other species of Old World monkeys. Differences in study design and group composition are considered as factors effecting discrepant results both within and between species.     

Geophagy by the bonnet macaques (Macaca radiata) of southern India: A preliminary analysis

Bonnet macaques (Macaca radiata) in the Marakkanam Reserved Forest of southern India consume termitaria soils. Samples from the ingested termite mounds are compared with samples taken from the surrounding uneaten soils in an attempt to determine why the termitaria soils are eaten. Particle size, clay and primary mineral composition, geochemistry, and scanning electron microscopic analyses are used to search for a possible explanation for geophagy among the bonnet macaques. Kaolin minerals abound throughout the Marakkanam soil sample suite. But the termitaria soils are distinguished by the presence of small amounts of smectite. An abundance of kaolin minerals in combination with small amounts of smectite strongly resembles the mineralogy ofeko, a traditional African remedy for stomach ailments, and Kaopectate™, a western anti-diarrhoeal preparation. The percentage of mature leaves and fruits ofAzadirachta indica consumed by the bonnet macaques is relatively high. Plant feeding deterrents, such as, acid detergent fibre (ADF) and the inherent nature of the fruits ofAzadirachta indica, when consumed in large quantities to act as a purgative, could cause gastrointestinal upsets and diarrhoea. At Marakkanam, bonnet macaques ingest termitaria earth that would act as a pharmaceutical agent to alleviate gastrointestinal upsets and control diarrhoea.     

Impact of hyperprolactinaemia on testicular neutral lipids and phospholipids in mature bonnet monkeys, Macaca radiata (Geoffroy)

Impact of hyperprolactinaemia, induced by daily injection of ovine prolactin (250 micrograms/kg body weight, ip for 30 days) on testicular lipids was studied in M. radiata. Wet weights of testis and accessory sex organs decreased in hyperprolactinaemic monkeys. Even though total lipids in the testis did not show any significant change, total cholesterol and total glyceride glycerol decreased. While all fractions of testicular neutral lipids showed a perceptible decrease, phosphatidic acid, phosphatidyl ethanolamine and phosphatidyl choline increased in hyperprolactinaemic monkeys. Hyperprolactinaemia appears to influence male fertility by altering the composition of testicular neutral lipids and phospholipids.     

Influence of prolactin on neural and glial cellular adenosine triphosphatases in immature male bonnet monkeys (Macaca radiata, Geoffroy)

The effect of prolactin on specific activities of adenosine triphosphatases (ATPases) in neural and gliar cells of cerebral cortex, cerebellum and pons-medulla of immature male bonnet monkeys was studied. Na+, K+ dependent ATPase was stimulated, while Mg2+ and Ca2+ dependent ATPase activities showed reduction in neural as well as glial cells of cerebral cortex and cerebellum. However, in pons-medulla, Na+, K+ and Mg2+ dependent ATPases showed the same trend in neural and glial cells, respectively, as in the other two regions. The data obtained reveal that prolactin has specific effect on different ATPases, in different regions of the brain.     

Growth of the masseter muscle in rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta)

The growth of the masseter muscle in eight infant, juvenile, and adolescent female rhesus monkeys (M. mulatta) was examined over a 2.5 year period using serial radiographic cephalometric techniques with the aid of radiopaque muscle markers. The radiopaque markers, which are composed of small pieces of root canal broach inserted into the muscle belly, make it possible to determine longitudinal masseter muscle growth as well as migration of the masseter muscle relative to the mandible. It was found that the masseter muscle increased in length by 64% during the total growth period, most of which occurred between 6 and 18 months of age. Relative to the cranium, the masseter muscle grew markedly inferiorly and only slightly posteriorly. Relative to the mandible, the masseter migrated in a posterior and slightly superior direction, keeping pace with the ramus and condyle as they grew posteriorly and posterosuperiorly throughout the study period. It was concluded that: 1) radiopaque muscle markers are a valuable tool for analysis of muscle growth and alteration of muscle location; 2) the masseter muscle in the rhesus monkey undergoes elongation, probably due to addition of sarcomeres at the fiber-tendon junctions; and 3) posterior migration of the masseter muscle relative to the corpus of the mandible, probably due to the nature of its periosteal attachment, results in a stability of the anteroposterior position of the masseter muscle despite the anterior displacement of the mandible.     

Antifertility effect of tamoxifen as tested in the female bonnet monkey (Macaca radiata)

The administration of a potent antiestrogen, tamoxifen at a dose of 3 mg/kg body weight/day orally post-coitally to cycling mated bonnet monkeys(Macaca radiata) from days 18–30 of cycle resulted in inhibition of establishment of pregnancy in 9 out of 10 monkeys. Tamoxifen effect was not due to interference with luteal function. The effect was specific to tamoxifen as exogenously administered progesterone could not reverse it. In addition to suggesting a role for estrogen in maintenance of early pregnancy in the primate the present study could be a prelude to the development of an effective post-ovulatory approach for regulation of fertility in the human female     

Socio-sexual factors of troop fission in wild Japanese monkeys (Macaca fuscata yakui) on Yakushima Island,Japan

The troop fissions which occurred in a wild population of Japanese monkeys (Macaca fuscata yakui) were observed from 1977 to 1979 on Yakushima Island. The fissions were initiated in the breeding season by non-troop males who established a consort relation with estrous females. In order to analyze the socio-sexual factors which accelerated the fissions, the male emigrations and immigrations before and after two successive fissions, and the copulation frequencies, competition among males and preferences of mating partners in both sexes in the 1977–78 breeding season after the first fission were examined. The results indicated that three factors (a large number of non-troop males, a shortage of troop males and the females' choice of mating partners) effectively influenced on the establishment of consort relationships between non-troop males and estrous females. It is suggested that these factors may exert different effects on the troop disorganization in relation to troop size. In small-sized troops, a large number of non-troop males and a shortage of troop males may lead to stronger competition between them, and the females' choice affected by prolonged intimate relations with the dominant TMs may reduce their priority of access to estrous females. This situation possibly stimulates fission or male emigration in small-sized troops under the natural conditions on Yakushima Island. In contrast, in large-sized troops under isolated conditions, a surplus rather than a shortage of troop males may contribute to troop disorganization, as most former studies have suggested. A higher socionomic sex ratio may decrease the mating activities of subordinate troop males and increase the competition among them. This situation possibly accelerates the fission of large-sized troops through prolonged interactions between females and subordinate or peripheral troop males. A lower ratio and the females' choice, however, raise the mating chances of subordinate troop males and may not promote the fission of large-sized troops under isolated conditions. This study was financed in part by a Grant-in-Aid for Special Project Research on Biological Aspects of Optimal Strategy and Social Structure from the Japan Ministry of Education, Science and Culture, and by the Cooperative Research Fund of the Primate Research Institute, Kyoto University.     

Ability of deglycosylated human chorionic gonadotropin (dghCG) to block luteal function and establishment of pregnancy in bonnet monkeys (Macaca radiata).

The ability of deglycosylated hCG (dghCG) prepared by deglycosylation of a clinical hCG (3000 IU/mg) preparation, to block luteal function during regular cycles as well as luteal rescue in simulated and mated cycles of female bonnet monkeys (M. radiata) has been evaluated. The cycle length (C:28 vs E:24 days) and the total progesterone produced during the luteal phase was significantly reduced (by 45%, P < .05) by injecting 450 micrograms of dghCG/day (in split doses) on days 18, 19, and 20 of cycle. At the doses tested the dghCG used did not exhibit any agonistic activity in the female monkey. In a second experiment injection of 200 micrograms of dghCG/day on days 18-20 of cycle blocked the normal response of the luteal tissue to exogenous hCG (10 micrograms of a 12,000 IU/mg preparation) injected on day 23 of cycle. In a third experiment no pregnancies occurred when a group of 5 animals were injected dghCG (450 micrograms dghCG/day) on days 18-21 of their mated cycle. Animals chosen for this study were proven fertile regularly cycling monkeys and these were cohabited with males between days 9 and 14 of cycle. Each of the monkeys was exposed to 3 consecutive treatment cycles. During post-treatment phase 2 out of 3 monkeys exposed to males became pregnant. The study clearly demonstrates that it is possible to block normal luteal function as well as luteal rescue of the female monkey by using dghCG in the right dose and mode.     

Segregation distortion and differential fitness at the albumin locus in rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta)

The observed patterns of segregation of two co-dominant alleles at the macaque albumin locus in 400 rhesus monkey offspring were compared with those expected for five segregating mating phenotypes. Rates of reproductive loss and conception were also compared among females of each albumin phenotype. The common albumin allele in macaques, Al^A_mac, segregated more frequently than expected when the mother was heterozygous but less frequently than expected when she was homozygous for Al^B_mac. In both cases, the phenotype identical to that of the mother appeared to be favored. Mothers who were either homozygous for Al^A_mac or heterozygous were also found to experience higher conception rates than mothers homozygous for Al^B_mac. It is hypothesized that phenotypic differences in bilirubin binding, and in competitive binding by dietary constituents, by albumin influences both these results and the nonrandom distribution of Al^B_mac in Asian macaques.     

Handedness found in a wild group of moor monkeys Macaca maurus in the Karaenta Nature Reserve, South Sulawesi,Indonesia

Hand preference of wild moor monkeys Macaca maurus was investigated in food reaching situations at the Karaenta Nature Reserve, South Sulawesi, Indonesia. The frequency picking up sweet-corn grains to take into the mouth by either hand of monkeys was counted directly at the feeding ground where sweet-corn grains were scattered for monkeys. Among the 20 monkeys examined, 8 were fight-handed, 8 were left-handed, and 4 were ambilateral. The results indicated the prevailed hand preference on individual level but not either trends of left- or right-hand preference on population level. The trend toward a higher proportion of left-handed monkeys found in Japanese and rhesus monkeys was not found. Some other characteristics found in moor monkeys are discussed in comparison with those previous findings in Japanese and Tibetan macaques in order to evaluate variations within the genus Macaca.     

Granulosa theca cell tumor with luteoma in the ovary of a bonnet monkey (Macaca radiata)

A mass was identified on the left caudal region of the abdomen in a 13-year-old bonnet monkey (Macaca radiata). The mass was excised and diagnosed as granulosa theca cell tumor accompanied with luteoma based on the microscopic findings. Morphologically it appeared pink, round, firm multilobulated measured approximately 5 x 3 x 2.5 cm in dimension. Histologically the luteoma composed of polyhedral cells with pale strained vacuolated cytoplasm, centrally located nuclei with distinct cytoplasmic borders. Granulosa theca cell tumor appeared as densely packed spindle shaped fusiform cells arranged in interlacing bundles and whorled pattern with neoplastic cells appearing irregular shaped solid sheets. The concomitant development of granulosa theca cell tumor with luteoma in a single ovary is very rare and is the first reported case in a bonnet macaque to our knowledge.     

Inhibin-like and gonadotropin-like immunoreactivity in pituitary cells of male monkeys (Macaca fascicularis,Macaca mulatta)

Summary Inhibin-like immunoreactivity was detected by immunocytochemistry in the pituitaries of untreated male crab-eating macaques (cynomolgus monkey) and rhesus monkeys, in rhesus monkeys actively immunized against FSH, and in one orchidectomized crab-cating macaque. Localizations were performed by the immunogold-silver staining with 5-nm colloidal gold-conjugated second or third antibodies and by the alkaline phosphatase-anti-alkaline-phosphatase technique. Two different inhibin-specific antisera, raised against the -subunit or the entire inhibin molecule, provided identical staining patterns. Positive label was confined to the pars distalis of the pituitary and occurred exclusively in the cytoplasm of morphologically different cell types throughout the pars distalis in all pituitaries. Staining was most prominent in clusters of chromophobic cells. The presence of inhibin-like activity in the pituitary of an orchidectomized monkey with undetectable serum inhibin levels suggests that inhibin is produced within the pituitary gland. Co-localization studies for the -subunits of the gonadotropic hormones revealed that on average 82% of the gonadotropes were bihormonal. Using the same protocol, co-localization of inhibin-like activity with gonadotropin-like immunoreactivity revealed only a small degree of common distribution (<15%). Inhibinpositive cells were frequently in close proximity to gonadotropic cells and, thus, paracrine effects of inhibin on gonadotropin-synthesizing cells are conceivable.     

Behavioral,immunological, and hormonal responses associated with social change in rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta)

Twelve animals to be socially reorganized in a group of 49 animals were compared with ten animals in a socially stable group (n = 51) for reproductive hormones, cortisol concentrations, immune function, and behavioral patterns for a 6 week baseline and 16 week postreorganization period. Cortisol values, mitogen-induced lymphocyte blastogenesis, and rates of behavior reflected social events. Increased cortisols, increased noncontact aggression, and decreased mitogen response were associated with animal introductions. Increased cortisol concentration and decreased mitogen response correlated significantly only in animals removed from the group for trauma, and females successful at group membership exhibited lower cortisol concentrations. High-ranking animals in small stable groups exhibited significantly higher lymphocyte proliferation than middle- or low-ranking animals. While relative ranks established in small groups were maintained following reorganization, baseline cortisol values, immune measures, or male testosterone values did not predict success at group membership. © 1996 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

The wild ancestors of urid and mung beans (Vigna mungo (L.) Hepper and V. radiata (L.) Wilczek)

The crop plants Vigna mungo (urid, urd or black gram) and V. radiata (mung bean or green gram: and related taxa have been studied by seed protein electrophoresis, leaf phenolics chromatography, vegetative morphology, and seed testa patterns. The results disprove the theory that these species are very closely related and have evolved from a single wild taxon. The present evidence shows that V. mungo var. mungo and I. radiata var. radiata have independent lineages and were domesticated from two very distinct taxa. namely V. mungo var. silvestris and V. radoata var. sublobata respectively.