Predicting effects of naturally acquired abomasal nematode infections on growth rate and food intake in reindeer using serum pepsinogen levels

An experiment was performed on semiwild reindeer with naturally acquired parasite infections to assess whether measures of serum pepsinogen concentration and fecal egg counts can be used to predict effects of abomasal nematodes on reindeer weight gain and food intake. Food intake and weight gains were lower in infected calves compared with calves where parasites had been removed by anthelmintic treatment. Among the infected animals, concentration of pepsinogen in serum was correlated with food intake and weight gains. Concentration of abomasal nematode eggs in feces was not. Our results suggest that measures of pepsinogen levels in serum, but not fecal egg counts, may be used to predict the effects of abomasal nematodes on food intake and weight gain of reindeer.     

Microbiological Contamination of Reindeer Carcass During Slaughter

Microbiological counts for 10 different sampling sites of 28 reindeer carcasses were studied in 3 reindeer slaughterhouses in Finland. On each carcass the hindshank, round, abdomen, flank, brisket, foreleg, shoulder, neck, foreback and back were sampled immediately after slaughter, using a nondestructive swabbing method. The overall mean bacterial count for 10 sampling sites of reindeer carcasses was 1.51 ± 0.51 log10 cfu/cm2. Statistically significant differences were detected between sampling sites. The back part of the reindeer carcass, i.e. hindshank, round, back and foreback, seemed to be relatively clean. The most contaminated parts were the foreleg, brisket and abdomen (2.05–2.95 log10 cfu/cm2); these could be used for monitoring the hygiene of the reindeer carcass after slaughter. Differences between the 3 slaughterhouses were detected for some sampling sites, which may be due to differences in slaughter techniques and hygiene.     

The population dynamics of Ostertagia gruehneri in reindeer: a model for the seasonal and intensity dependent variation in nematode fecundity

The gastrointestinal nematode Ostertagia gruehneri is a parasite of reindeer that can have a significant impact on host population dynamics. To gain a better understanding of the population dynamics of O. gruehneri, we parameterise a model for its fecundity that describes the observed seasonal and intensity dependent pattern of faecal egg counts well. The faecal egg count model is combined with a model for the seasonal faecal production rate of Svalbard reindeer to obtain quantitative estimates of the fecundity of O. gruehneri. The model is used to evaluate the relative contribution to pasture contamination of variation in the abundance of O. gruehneri and variation in reindeer densities. It is concluded that due to the intensity dependence in nematode fecundity, variation in reindeer population densities is likely to be the most important of these factors for pasture contamination.     

A century of conservation: The ongoing recovery of Svalbard reindeer

Several caribou and reindeer (Rangifer tarandus) populations have experienced recent population declines, often attributed to anthropogenic stressors such as harvesting, landscape fragmentation, and climate change. Svalbard reindeer (R. t. platyrhynchus), the wild reindeer subspecies endemic to the high-Arctic Svalbard archipelago, was protected in 1925, after most subpopulations had been eradicated by harvest. Although direct pressure from harvest has ceased, indirect anthropogenic stressors from environmental changes have increased in this climate change hot spot. An assessment of the current distribution and abundance is therefore urgently needed. We combined distance sampling (300 km transects, n = 489 reindeer groups) and total counts (1,350 km², n = 1,349 groups) to estimate the Svalbard reindeer distribution and abundance across its entire range, which we compared with historical data from the literature and radiocarbon-dated bones. Reindeer have now recolonized nearly all non-glaciated land (i.e., areas occupied prior to human presence), and their spatial variation in abundance reflects vegetation productivity. Independent of vegetation productivity, however, recently recolonized areas have lower reindeer densities than areas not subject to past extirpation. This suggests that recovery from past overharvesting is still in progress. These incompletely recovered areas are potential targets for increased monitoring frequency and maintaining strict conservation to follow the Svalbard management goal (i.e., virtually untouched wilderness areas). Because of such ongoing recolonization, possibly combined with vegetation greening effects of recent warming, our status estimate of Svalbard reindeer abundance (22,435 [95% CI = 21,452–23,425]) is more than twice a previous estimate based on opportunistic counts. Thus, although our study demonstrates the successful outcome of strict harvesting control implemented a century ago, current and future population trajectories are likely shaped by climate change. © 2019 The Authors. Journal of Wildlife Management Published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc. on behalf of The Wildlife Society.     

Experimental trichinellosis in reindeer

Six female reindeer calves were inoculated intraruminally with various doses of Trichinella muscle larvae. Four calves were inoculated with T. nativa, receiving 15,000 (n = 1), 5,000 (1), and 2,500 (2) larvae each. Two calves were inoculated with 5,000 T. spiralis larvae each. Blood samples were collected twice per week for total white blood cell (WBC) and differential counts and for serology using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) based on T. spiralis excretory-secretory antigen. On day 56, the calves were slaughtered and muscle samples were examined according to the standard digestion method for Trichinella larvae. Blood samples were also collected twice a week from 4 uninoculated, but otherwise similar, reindeer calves corralled separately. Both the total WBC and eosinophil counts of the inoculated animals were, on average, higher during the experimental period. All the inoculated calves seroconverted, showing an increase in the optical density (OD) in the ELISA starting between day 23 and day 27 postinoculation. Very few muscle larvae (<0.08 larvae/g [lpg]) were to be found from the animals inoculated with T. nativa, but about 4 and 6 lpg were recovered from the masseter muscles of those inoculated with T. spiralis.     

Summer distribution of semi-domesticated reindeer relative to a new wind-power plant

Wind-power plants (WPs) within reindeer (Rangifer tarandus tarandus) habitat may have negative effects on reindeer habitat use. Avoidance effects towards a WP were tested by comparing reindeer distributions on a peninsula where a WP was built in 2006 with a control peninsula without a WP. Distributions were measured by direct observations during construction period, and in four subsequent years, and limited faecal pellet group counts along transects before, during and after the WP construction (2005–2010). We predicted higher reindeer density in the control than the WP peninsula and at increasing distances from the WP when controlling for habitat quality. We found no avoidance effects from the WP, with significantly more reindeer in the WP than the control peninsula. Faecal pellet group data supported a lack of negative effects towards the WP after construction compared to before, while area within 100 m from the access road to the WP was avoided during the construction period and for 3 years afterwards. Reindeer avoided low-quality habitat both in the control and WP peninsulas. Our study indicates that WP development might have minor effects on habitat use if built in poor habitats, at least for semi-domestic reindeer. Our results cannot be used to infer effects of a WP built in higher-quality habitats or where large-scale movements are less restrictive than on a peninsula. Disturbance effects of human infrastructure likely are context-dependent, and management should thus be careful in planning of WPs to minimize adverse effects.     

Reindeer habitat use in relation to two small wind farms,during preconstruction,construction, and operation

Worldwide there is a rush toward wind power development and its associated infrastructure. In Fennoscandia, large‐scale wind farms comprising several hundred windmills are currently built in important grazing ranges used for Sámi reindeer husbandry. In this study, reindeer habitat use was assessed using reindeer fecal pellet group counts in relation to two relatively small wind farms, with 8 and 10 turbines, respectively. In 2009, 1,315 15‐m² plots were established and pellet groups were counted and cleaned from the plots. This was repeated once a year in May, during preconstruction, construction, and operation of the wind farms, covering 6 years (2009–2014) of reindeer habitat use in the area. We modeled the presence/absence of any pellets in a plot at both the local (wind farm site) and regional (reindeer calving to autumn range) scale with a hierarchical logistic regression, where spatial correlation was accounted for via random effects, using vegetation type, and the interaction between distance to wind turbine and time period as predictor variables. Our results revealed an absolute reduction in pellet groups by 66% and 86% around each wind farm, respectively, at local scale and by 61% at regional scale during the operation phase compared to the preconstruction phase. At the regional, scale habitat use declined close to the turbines in the same comparison. However, at the local scale, we observed increased habitat use close to the wind turbines at one of the wind farms during the operation phase. This may be explained by continued use of an important migration route close to the wind farm. The reduced use at the regional scale nevertheless suggests that there may be an overall avoidance of both wind farms during operation, but further studies of reindeer movement and behavior are needed to gain a better understanding of the mechanisms behind this suggested avoidance.     

Spatial modeling of data with excessive zeros applied to reindeer pellet‐group counts

We analyze a real data set pertaining to reindeer fecal pellet‐group counts obtained from a survey conducted in a forest area in northern Sweden. In the data set, over 70% of counts are zeros, and there is high spatial correlation. We use conditionally autoregressive random effects for modeling of spatial correlation in a Poisson generalized linear mixed model (GLMM), quasi‐Poisson hierarchical generalized linear model (HGLM), zero‐inflated Poisson (ZIP), and hurdle models. The quasi‐Poisson HGLM allows for both under‐ and overdispersion with excessive zeros, while the ZIP and hurdle models allow only for overdispersion. In analyzing the real data set, we see that the quasi‐Poisson HGLMs can perform better than the other commonly used models, for example, ordinary Poisson HGLMs, spatial ZIP, and spatial hurdle models, and that the underdispersed Poisson HGLMs with spatial correlation fit the reindeer data best. We develop R codes for fitting these models using a unified algorithm for the HGLMs. Spatial count response with an extremely high proportion of zeros, and underdispersion can be successfully modeled using the quasi‐Poisson HGLM with spatial random effects.     

Do human activity and infrastructure disturb domesticated reindeer? The need for the reindeer’s perspective

In recent decades, human–Rangifer (reindeer and caribou) interactions have increasingly been studied from a scientific perspective. Many of the studies have examined Norwegian wild reindeer or caribou in North America. It is often questioned whether results from these studies can be applied to reindeer in managed herds, as these animals have been exposed to domestication and are also more used to humans. In order to examine the domesticated reindeer’s reactions to various disturbance sources, we reviewed 18 studies of the effects of human activity and infrastructure on 12 populations of domesticated reindeer and compared these to studies on wild reindeer and caribou; based on this, we discuss the effects of domestication and tameness on reindeer responses to anthropogenic disturbance. We also consider the relevance of spatial and temporal scales and data collection methods when evaluating the results of these studies. The reviewed studies showed that domesticated reindeer exhibit avoidance behaviours up to 12 km away from infrastructure and sites of human activity and that the area they avoid may shift between seasons and years. Despite a long domestication process, reindeer within Sami reindeer-herding systems exhibit similar patterns of large-scale avoidance of anthropogenic disturbance as wild Rangifer, although the strength of their response may sometimes differ. This is not surprising since current Sami reindeer husbandry represents an extensive form of pastoralism, and the reindeer are not particularly tame. To obtain a true picture of how reindeer use their ranges, it is of fundamental importance to study the response pattern at a spatial and temporal scale that is relevant to the reindeer, whether domesticated or wild.     

Population trends,distribution and conservation status of semi-domesticated reindeer (Rangifer tarandus) in China

The reindeer (Rangifer tarandus tarandus) is listed as a species of “least concern” on the Red List of Threatened Species of the World Conservation Union (IUCN). It is distributed in the northern part of China and semi-domesticated in the region. Here we present a comparison of the historical and current distribution and numbers of reindeer in China, as well as an assessment of the factors limiting population growth. Based on this information we explore potential protective measures for reindeer in China.The reindeer has been herded extensively by the Ewenki people, the only people to do so in China. Reindeer in China originated from the Wenduosenlin tundra highlands of Siberia. Capable of migrating more than 3000 km/year, the reindeer moved from the highlands to the Weitimu river during the 16th century and on to the Northeast area of China in 1654. Since 1957, 600 reindeer have settled in Qiqian in Inner Mongolia, and from 1965 more than 900 reindeer migrated from there to Mangui. In response to frequent flooding and a fluctuating reindeer population in the Mangui region, in 2003 the Ewenki people and more than 260 reindeer translocated from there to Aoluguya.Currently, eight meta-populations of reindeer comprising 773 individuals inhabit in the Arctic region of China. The reindeer population peaked in the 1970s at more than 1080 animals, but declined markedly from 1998 onwards mainly as a result of inbreeding, poaching, predation and tourism. The Chinese government's interest in wildlife protection is increasing, as evidenced by the introduction of wildlife protection laws and regulations, the importation of new reindeer varieties from Russia and the joining of the Association of World Reindeer Herders. However, natural reserves and national parks have still not been established within the reindeer's range in China to conserve this fragile population.     

Experimental Narthecium ossifragum nephrotoxicity in cervids from Norway

One moose (Alces alces), two red deer (Cervus elaphus), two reindeer (Rangifer tarandus) and two fallow deer (Dama dama) were dosed intraruminally with an aqueous extract made from 30 g of bog asphodel (Narthecium ossifragum) (wet weight) per kg live weight. The moose and one of the two reindeer were mildly depressed and had reduced appetite 3 to 7 days and 1 to 4 days after dosing, respectively. The serum creatinine and urea concentrations increased markedly in the moose and red deer, and moderately in the reindeer. No increase in serum creatinine and urea was observed in the fallow deer. Histopathological examination of the kidneys of the animals, killed 8 to 10 days after dosing, revealed tubular epithelial cell degeneration, necrosis, and regeneration in the moose, red deer and reindeer. The renal lesions were severe in the moose, moderate in the red deer and mild in the reindeer. No histopathological lesions were seen in the kidneys of the fallow deer.     

Influence of Stress on Some Blood Constituents in Reindeer (Rangiferi Tarandus L)

In reindeer, subjected to stress, marked changes were found in some blood constituents when compared with unstressed animals, i.e. the white blood cell composition, Cortisol and urea values. Mental stress, due to handling appears to be of great importance in reindeer. Elevated urea values in stressed animals may cause a decreased meat quality.     

Ecology of uncultivated Oscillospira species in the rumen of cattle, sheep, and reindeer as assessed by microscopy and molecular approaches

The ecology of the uncultured, but large and morphologically conspicuous, rumen bacterium Oscillospira spp. was studied. Oscillospira-specific 16S rRNA gene sequences were detected in North American domestic cattle, sheep from Australia and Japan, and Norwegian reindeer. Phylogenetic analysis of the sequences obtained allowed definition of three operational taxonomic units within the Oscillospira clade. Consistent with this genetic diversity, we observed atypical smaller morphotypes by using an Oscillospira-specific fluorescence in situ hybridization probe. Despite the visual disappearance of typical large Oscillospira morphotypes, the presence of Oscillospira spp. was still detected by Oscillospira-specific PCR in the rumen of cattle and sheep. These observations suggest the broad presence of Oscillospira species in various rumen ecosystems with the level, and most likely the morphological form, dependent on diet. An ecological analysis based on enumeration of the morphologically conspicuous, large-septate form confirms that the highest counts are associated with the feeding of fresh forage diets to cattle and sheep and in two different subspecies of reindeer investigated.     

Polymorphism of the mtDNA control region in wild reindeer Rangifer tarandus (Mammalia: Artioodactyla) from the European part of Russia

Genetic diversity of wild reindeer (Rangifer tarandus) inhabiting the European part of Russia, including Komi Republic, Arkhangelsk oblast, Murmansk oblast, and the Republic of Karelia was characterized using sequence polymorphism of the mtDNA control region. Despite of currently low population number of wild reindeer, they were characterized by a high level of genetic diversity (?? = 0.018; H = 0.872 to 0.914). Phylogenetic analysis showed close relationships between European reindeer and wild reindeer of Siberia. In reindeer from Murmansk oblast a haplotype in common with the wild reindeer form Southwestern Norway was described. The reindeer sample examined contained no haplotypes earlier described for the reindeer of Central Norway. It is suggested that in recent past wild reindeer from the European north of Russia formed one population with the reindeer from the north of the Asian part of Eurasia.     

Taxonomic Notes on the Swedish Domestic Reindeer, Genus Rangifer

In order to study the taxonomic relationship between domestic mountain and forest reindeer in Sweden nine skull characters on 126 and 62 animals, respectively, were measured and analysed. In addition antler width and shape of antler beam in cross-section were also measured. The differences indicate that the two groups of domestic reindeer are not entirely identical, although the differences are clearly not as plain as has been claimed. Comparing these results with earlier results it also appears that domestic forest reindeer are more in accordance with Rangifer tarandus tarandus than with R. t. jennicus , thus supporting the theory that possible influence of the latter subspecies on domestic reindeer has been considerably reduced as a result of long and intense cross breeding between the two groups of domestic reindeer.     

Lecture 38. Thinking and Speech

Results are presented of an expedition to the tundra to study cross-cultural features of perceiving perspective and spatial representations among Nenets reindeer herders. Both adult reindeer herders and children experienced difficulty in depicting the spatial properties of objects on a plane. Among reindeer herders, drawings of objects situated at varying distances from the observer predominantly exhibited attributes of reverse perspective, although in selecting perspective models, they gave preference to images in linear perspective. A high level of topological spatial representations and a low level of projection and coordinate representations were identified among reindeer herders, in comparison with the control results using city children. A comparison of results from literate and illiterate reindeer herders, as well as younger and older children showed that the environmental factor of the tundra's open spaces exerts a stronger influence on spatial perception factors as compared to educational level.     

The Pursuit of Population Collapses: Long-Term Dynamics of Semi-Domestic Reindeer in Sweden

Spatiotemporal reindeer population fluctuations are a result of multiple factors that working in concert affecting the structure and functioning of many Arctic and Sub-Arctic ecosystems. We investigated the population dynamics of Swedish semi-domestic reindeer from 1945 to 2012 at the reindeer herding district-level (Sameby) to identify possible population collapses or declines. We also explored spatial trends and synchrony in population dynamics across latitudinal-longitude gradients for two distinct periods: 1945–1965 and 1995–2012 but found no evidence of large-scale reindeer population declines and no visible synchrony across adjacent populations. Our findings were unexpected as both reindeer populations and the pastoral lifestyle face increased habitat loss, predation, fragmentation and climate change.     

Effects of Hunting on Response Behaviors of Wild Reindeer

ABSTRACT Because wild reindeer (Rangifer tarandus) are hunted in southern Norway, reindeer may perceive all recreationists as threats. Potential adverse effects of hunting on reindeer behavior may be exacerbated by other forms of recreation because the number of skiers and hikers in areas inhabited by reindeer has also increased. The Norefjell-Reinsjøfjell wild reindeer area is used extensively for recreation and tourism. Reindeer hunting was introduced in the area in 1992, and harvest rate has been stable at about 38% of winter herd size. We recorded behavioral responses of reindeer to a person approaching directly on foot or skis during 1992 and again in 2002–2006. Compared to 1992, flight-initiation distance increased and fewer groups assessed the observer before taking flight during 2002–2006. In winter, when reindeer are usually comparably more vigilant than in other seasons, flight-initiation distance increased from only 60 m to 115 m and escape distance decreased from 400 m to 210 m. Neither alert distance, calf carcass weights (23.6 ± 0.7 [SE] kg to 22.4 ± 0.2 kg), nor reindeer herd size (661 ± 73 to 579 ± 15) changed during the 15 years of our study. Reindeer appeared to habituate to the observer because they initiated flight at shorter distances as the number of approaches on the same day increased. In Norefjell-Reinsjøfjell, encounters with a person on foot or skis did not result in behavioral responses likely to entail substantial energy costs for reindeer; therefore, hunting at current levels appears compatible with other recreational activities.     

Nutritional development of feeding strategies in arctic ruminants: digestive morphometry of reindeer, Rangifer tarandus, and muskoxen, Ovibos moschatus

Reindeer have been classified as intermediate feeders and muskoxen as grazers based on differences in digestive morphology and consumption of fibrous plants. We hypothesized that the digestive morphology of young (<2 months) reindeer and muskoxen anticipates transitions in diet and determines the feeding strategy of each species at adulthood. We compared structural morphology and rates of cell division in the rumen, abomasum, duodenum and liver of reindeer and muskoxen as neonates (1 day old), during the transition from milk to forage (30–60  days old) and in adults (>7 yr). Development in utero provided the neonate with a functioning mucosa of the gastric abomasum and duodenal mucosa with high surface enlargement for digestion and absorption of concentrated milks. Transition to forage was preceded by changes in ruminal papillae structure that increased surface area and likely contributed to active fermentation by 60 days of age. The abomasum also increased in acid-secreting parietal cells during the transition to forage, which may enhance digestion of plant and microbial proteins. Rates of cell division also indicated a sustained differentiation of tissue structure during the transitional period. Young arctic ruminants expressed digestive structures that preceded full function, which indicated the ultimate feeding strategy of each species. For example, the rumen of young muskoxen had thick cornified epithelia and muscle layers that would provide ruminal mucosa with better protection from fibrous abrasion and enhance motility of bulky diets. Conversely, young reindeer had more complex papillary shapes in the rumen and more foliate villi in the duodenum, indicating a greater absorptive capacity of these structures than in muskoxen. Ontogenetic programs, therefore, play the primary role for digestive development of reindeer and muskoxen and determine the nutritional strategies of adults.     

Differential effects of reindeer on high Arctic lichens

Abstract. We studied the effects of Svalbard reindeer on the abundance of lichens in Spitsbergen. A survey was carried out in 14 areas with contrasting reindeer densities. Separate cover estimates for crustose, fructose and foliose lichens were taken in each area, and related to the density of reindeer pellet groups, a measure of reindeer density. Dominant macro lichen families were identified in 10 areas, and a full record of macrolichen species was taken in four additional areas. Variation in reindeer density is partially due to past overhunting, and subsequent incomplete recovery, releasing some areas from reindeer grazing for 100–200 yr. The cover of fruticose lichens was negatively related to reindeer pellet group density, indicating suppression by Svalbard reindeer. This makes their impact comparable to other members of the Rangifer genus around the northern hemisphere. The generally recorded low abundance of lichens in the diet of Svalbard reindeer compared to other Rangifer species, therefore, was interpreted as the depletion of fruticose lichens in Spitsbergen, and a subsequent switch to alternative foods. Of all fruticose lichens, Stereocaulon spp. appeared least sensitive to grazing. Crustose and foliose lichen cover was independent of reindeer pellet group density. The cover of crustose lichens was significantly related to latitude, with greater cover in more northern areas. Foliose lichens were more abundant in places where moss cover was high. We conclude that the impact of Svalbard reindeer on lichens is dependent on growth form, with fruticose lichens suffering from grazing, whereas foliose lichens might indirectly benefit from higher densities of reindeer or, like crustose lichens, be controlled by other factors.