Irradiance influences tea leaf (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Camellia sinensis</Emphasis> L.) photosynthesis and transpiration

Rates of net photosynthesis (P _N) and transpiration (E), and leaf temperature (T_L) of maintenance leaves of tea under plucking were affected by photosynthetic photon flux densities (PPFD) of 200–2 200 μmol m⁻² s⁻¹. P _N gradually increased with the increase of PPFD from 200 to 1 200 μmol m⁻² s⁻¹ and thereafter sharply declined. Maximum P _N was 13.95 μmol m⁻² s⁻¹ at 1 200 μmol m⁻² s⁻¹ PPFD. There was no significant variation of P _N among PPFD at 1 400–1 800 μmol m⁻² s⁻¹. Significant drop of P _N occurred at 2 000 μmol m⁻² s⁻¹. PPFD at 2 200 μmol m⁻² s⁻¹ reduced photosynthesis to 6.92 μmol m⁻² s⁻¹. PPFD had a strong correlation with T_L and E. Both T_L and E linearly increased from 200 to 2 200 μmol m⁻² s⁻¹ PPFD. T_L and E were highly correlated. The optimum T_L for maximum P _N was 26.0 °C after which P _N declined significantly. E had a positive correlation with P _N.     

Light and growth temperature alter carbon isotope discrimination and estimated bundle sheath leakiness in C<Subscript>4</Subscript> grasses and dicots

We combined measurements of short-term (during gas exchange) and long-term (from plant dry matter) carbon isotope discrimination to estimate CO₂ leakiness from bundle sheath cells in six C₄ species (three grasses and three dicots) as a function of leaf insertion level, growth temperature and short-term irradiance. The two methods for determining leakiness yielded similar results (P > 0.05) for all species except Setaria macrostachya, which may be explained by the leaf of this species not being accommodating to gas exchange. Leaf insertion level had no effect on leakiness. At the highest growth temperature (36°C) leakiness was lower than at the two lower growth temperatures (16°C and 26°C), between which no differences in leakiness were apparent. Higher irradiance decreased leakiness in three species, while it had no significant effect on the others (there was an opposite trend in two species). The inverse response to increasing irradiance was most marked in the two NAD-ME dicots (both Amaranthus species), which both showed almost 50% leakiness at low light (300 μmol quanta m⁻² s⁻¹) compared to about 30% at high light (1,600 μmol quanta m⁻² s⁻¹). NADP-ME subtype grasses had lower leakiness than NAD-ME dicots. Although there were exceptions, particularly in the effect of irradiance on leakiness in Sorghum and Boerhavia, we conclude that conditions favourable to C₄ photosynthesis (high temperature and high light) lead to a reduction in leakiness.     

Compensatory effects of elevated CO<Subscript>2</Subscript> concentration on the inhibitory effects of high temperature and irradiance on photosynthetic gas exchange in carrots

We determined the interactive effects of irradiance, elevated CO₂ concentration (EC), and temperature in carrot (Daucus carota var. sativus). Plants of the cv. Red Core Chantenay (RCC) were grown in a controlled environmental plant growth room and exposed to 3 levels of photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) (400, 800, 1 200 μmol m⁻² s⁻¹), 3 leaf chamber temperatures (15, 20, 30 °C), and 2 external CO₂ concentrations (C _a), AC and EC (350 and 750 μmol mol⁻¹, respectively). Rates of net photosynthesis (P _N) and transpiration (E) and stomatal conductance (g _s ) were measured, along with water use efficiency (WUE) and ratio of internal and external CO₂ concentrations (C _i/C _a). P _N revealed an interactive effect between PAR and C _a. As PAR increased so did P _N under both C _a regimes. The g _s showed no interactive effects between the three parameters but had singular effects of temperature and PAR. E was strongly influenced by the combination of PAR and temperature. WUE was interactively affected by all three parameters. Maximum WUE occurred at 15 °C and 1 200 μmol m⁻² s^{− 1} PAR under EC. The C _i /C _a was influenced independently by temperature and C _a. Hence photosynthetic responses are interactively affected by changes in irradiance, external CO₂ concentration, and temperature. EC significantly compensates the inhibitory effects of high temperature and irradiance on P _N and WUE.     

Photosynthetic responses of apricot (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Prunus armeniaca</Emphasis> L.) to photosynthetic photon flux density,leaf temperature,and CO<Subscript>2</Subscript> concentration

Two cultivars (Katy and Erhuacao) of apricot (Prunus armeniaca L.) were evaluated under open-field and solar-heated greenhouse conditions in northwest China, to determine the effect of photosynthetic photon flux density (PPFD), leaf temperature, and CO₂ concentration on the net photosynthetic rate (P _N). In greenhouse, Katy registered 28.3 μmol m⁻² s⁻¹ for compensation irradiance and 823 μmol m⁻² s⁻¹ for saturation irradiance, which were 73 and 117 % of those required by Erhuacao, respectively. The optimum temperatures for cvs. Katy and Erhuacao were 25 and 35 °C in open-field and 22 and 30 °C in greenhouse, respectively. At optimal temperatures, P _N of the field-grown Katy was 16.5 μmol m⁻² s⁻¹, 21 % less than for a greenhouse-grown apricot. Both cultivars responded positively to CO₂ concentrations below the CO₂ saturation concentration, whereas Katy exhibited greater P _N (18 %) and higher carboxylation efficiency (91 %) than Erhuacao at optimal CO₂ concentration. Both cultivars exhibited greater photosynthesis in solar-heated greenhouses than in open-field, but Katy performed better than Erhuacao under greenhouse conditions.     

Stomatal conductance and not stomatal density determines the long-term reduction in leaf transpiration of poplar in elevated CO<Subscript>2</Subscript>

Using a free-air CO₂ enrichment (FACE) experiment, poplar trees (Populus × euramericana clone I214) were exposed to either ambient or elevated [CO₂] from planting, for a 5-year period during canopy development, closure, coppice and re-growth. In each year, measurements were taken of stomatal density (SD, number mm⁻²) and stomatal index (SI, the proportion of epidermal cells forming stomata). In year 5, measurements were also taken of leaf stomatal conductance (g _s, μmol m⁻² s⁻¹), photosynthetic CO₂ fixation (A, mmol m⁻² s⁻¹), instantaneous water-use efficiency (A/E) and the ratio of intercellular to atmospheric CO₂ (C_i:C_a). Elevated [CO₂] caused reductions in SI in the first year, and in SD in the first 2 years, when the canopy was largely open. In following years, when the canopy had closed, elevated [CO₂] had no detectable effects on stomatal numbers or index. In contrast, even after 5 years of exposure to elevated [CO₂], g _s was reduced, A/E was stimulated, and C_i:C_a was reduced relative to ambient [CO₂]. These outcomes from the long-term realistic field conditions of this forest FACE experiment suggest that stomatal numbers (SD and SI) had no role in determining the improved instantaneous leaf-level efficiency of water use under elevated [CO₂]. We propose that altered cuticular development during canopy closure may partially explain the changing response of stomata to elevated [CO₂], although the mechanism for this remains obscure.     

Microgravity effects on thylakoid,single leaf,and whole canopy photosynthesis of dwarf wheat

The concept of using higher plants to maintain a sustainable life support system for humans during long-duration space missions is dependent upon photosynthesis. The effects of extended exposure to microgravity on the development and functioning of photosynthesis at the leaf and stand levels were examined onboard the International Space Station (ISS). The PESTO (Photosynthesis Experiment Systems Testing and Operations) experiment was the first long-term replicated test to obtain direct measurements of canopy photosynthesis from space under well-controlled conditions. The PESTO experiment consisted of a series of 21–24 day growth cycles of Triticum aestivum L. cv. USU Apogee onboard ISS. Single leaf measurements showed no differences in photosynthetic activity at the moderate (up to 600 μmol m⁻² s⁻¹) light levels, but reductions in whole chain electron transport, PSII, and PSI activities were measured under saturating light (>2,000 μmol m⁻² s⁻¹) and CO₂ (4000 μmol mol⁻¹) conditions in the microgravity-grown plants. Canopy level photosynthetic rates of plants developing in microgravity at ∼280 μmol m⁻² s⁻¹ were not different from ground controls. The wheat canopy had apparently adapted to the microgravity environment since the CO₂ compensation (121 vs. 118 μmol mol⁻¹) and PPF compensation (85 vs. 81 μmol m⁻² s⁻¹) of the flight and ground treatments were similar. The reduction in whole chain electron transport (13%), PSII (13%), and PSI (16%) activities observed under saturating light conditions suggests that microgravity-induced responses at the canopy level may occur at higher PPF intensity.     

Photosynthetic light response in three carnivorous plant species: <Emphasis Type="Italic">Drosera rotundifolia,D. capensis and Sarracenia leucophylla</Emphasis>

Photosynthetic properties of carnivorous plants have not been well characterized and the extent to which photosynthesis contributes to carbon gain in most carnivorous plants is also largely unknown. We investigated the photosynthetic light response in three carnivorous plant species, Drosera rotundifolia L. (sundew; circumpolar and native to northern British Columbia, Canada), Sarracenia leucophylla Rafin. (‘pitcher-plant’; S.E. United States), and D. capensis L. (sundew; Cape Peninsula, South Africa), using portable gas-exchange systems to explore the capacity for photosynthetic carbon gain in carnivorous plant species. Maximal photosynthetic rates (1.32–2.22 μmol m⁻² s⁻¹ on a leaf area basis) and saturating light intensities (100 to 200 μmol PAR m⁻² s⁻¹) were both low in all species and comparable to shade plants. Field or greenhouse-grown D. rotundifolia had the highest rates of photosynthesis among the three species examined. Dark respiration, ranging from −1.44 (S. leucophylla) to −3.32 (D. rotundifolia) μmol m⁻² s⁻¹ was high in comparison to photosynthesis in the species examined. Across greenhouse-grown plants, photosynthetic light compensation points scaled with light-saturated photosynthetic rates. An analysis of gas-exchange and growth data for greenhouse-grown D. capensis plants suggests that photosynthesis can account for all plant carbon gain in this species.     

Partitioning of photosynthetic electron flow between CO<Subscript>2</Subscript> assimilation and O<Subscript>2</Subscript> reduction in sunflower plants under water deficit

In sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.) grown under controlled conditions and subjected to drought by withholding watering, net photosynthetic rate (P _N) and stomatal conductance (g _s) of attached leaves decreased as leaf water potential (Ψ_w) declined from −0.3 to −2.9 MPa. Although g _s decreased over the whole range of Ψ_w, nearly constant values in the intercellular CO₂ concentrations (C _i) were observed as Ψ_w decreased to −1.8 MPa, but C _i increased as Ψ_w decreased further. Relative quantum yield, photochemical quenching, and the apparent quantum yield of photosynthesis decreased with water deficit, whereas non-photochemical quenching (q_NP) increased progressively. A highly significant negative relationship between q_NP and ATP content was observed. Water deficit did not alter the pyridine nucleotide concentration but decreased ATP content suggesting metabolic impairment. At a photon flux density of 550 μmol m⁻² s⁻¹, the allocation of electrons from photosystem (PS) 2 to O₂ reduction was increased by 51 %, while the allocation to CO₂ assimilation was diminished by 32 %, as Ψ_w declined from −0.3 to −2.9 MPa. A significant linear relationship between mean P _N and the rate of total linear electron transport was observed in well watered plants, the correlation becoming curvilinear when water deficit increased. The maximum quantum yield of PS2 was not affected by water deficit, whereas q_P declined only at very severe stress and the excess photon energy was dissipated by increasing q_NP indicating that a greater proportion of the energy was thermally dissipated. This accounted for the apparent down-regulation of PS2 and supported the protective role of q_NP against photoinhibition in sunflower.     

Photosynthetic and leaf anatomical characteristics of Castanea sativa: a comparison between in vitro and nursery plants

The anatomic and functional leaf characteristics related to photosynthetic performance of Castanea sativa growing in vitro and in nursery were compared. The irradiance saturated photosynthesis in in vitro grown plantlets was significantly lower compared to nursery plants (65 vs. 722 μmol m⁻² s⁻¹). The maximum photosynthetic rate (P_Nmax) was 4.0 and 10.0 μmol(CO₂) m⁻² s⁻¹ in in vitro microshoots and nursery plant leaves, respectively. Carboxylation efficiency (C_E) and electron transport rate (ETR) were three-folds higher in nursery plants than in microshoots. The nonphotochemical quenching (NPQ) was saturated at 80 μmol m⁻² s⁻¹ in microshoots suggesting limited photoprotection by thermal dissipation. The microshoots had wide open, spherical stomata and higher stomatal density than nursery plants and they had almost no epicuticular wax. Consequently, the microshoots had high stomatal conductance and high transpiration rate. These anatomic and functional leaf characteristics are likely major causes of the low survival rates of plantlets after ex vitro transfer.     

Excess irradiance causes early symptoms of senescence during leaf expansion in photoautotrophically <Emphasis Type="Italic">in vitro</Emphasis> grown tobacco plants

Photosynthetic parameters, growth, and pigment contents were determined during expansion of the fourth leaf of in vitro photoautotrophically cultured Nicotiana tabacum L. plants at three irradiances [photosynthetically active radiation (400–700 nm): low, LI 60 μmol m⁻² s⁻¹; middle, MI 180 μmol m⁻² s⁻¹; and high, HI 270 μmol m⁻² s⁻¹]. During leaf expansion, several symptoms usually accompanying leaf senescence appeared very early in HI and then in MI plants. Symptoms of senescence in developing leaves were: decreasing chlorophyll (Chl) a+b content and Chl a/b ratio, decreasing both maximum (F_V/F_M) and actual (Φ_PS2) photochemical efficiency of photosystem 2, and increasing non-photochemical quenching. Nevertheless, net photosynthetic oxygen evolution rate (P _N) did not decrease consistently with decrease in Chl content, but exhibited a typical ontogenetic course with gradual increase. P _N reached its maximum before full leaf expansion and then tended to decline. Thus excess irradiance during in vitro cultivation did not cause early start of leaf senescence, but impaired photosynthetic performance and Chl content in leaves and changed their typical ontogenetic course.     

Predicting tropical plant physiology from leaf and canopy spectroscopy

A broad regional understanding of tropical forest leaf photosynthesis has long been a goal for tropical forest ecologists, but it has remained elusive due to difficult canopy access and high species diversity. Here we develop an empirical model to predict sunlit, light-saturated, tropical leaf photosynthesis using leaf and simulated canopy spectra. To develop this model, we used partial least squares (PLS) analysis on three tropical forest datasets (159 species), two in Hawaii and one at the biosphere 2 laboratory (B2L). For each species, we measured light-saturated photosynthesis (A), light and CO₂ saturated photosynthesis (A _max), respiration (R), leaf transmittance and reflectance spectra (400–2,500 nm), leaf nitrogen, chlorophyll a and b, carotenoids, and leaf mass per area (LMA). The model best predicted A [r ²  = 0.74, root mean square error (RMSE) = 2.9 μmol m⁻² s⁻¹)] followed by R (r ²  = 0.48), and A _max (r ²  = 0.47). We combined leaf reflectance and transmittance with a canopy radiative transfer model to simulate top-of-canopy reflectance and found that canopy spectra are a better predictor of A (RMSE = 2.5 ± 0.07 μmol m⁻² s⁻¹) than are leaf spectra. The results indicate the potential for this technique to be used with high-fidelity imaging spectrometers to remotely sense tropical forest canopy photosynthesis.     

Influence of irradiance on photosynthesis and PSII photochemical efficiency in maize during short-term exposure at high CO<Subscript>2</Subscript> concentration

This work aimed to evaluate if gas exchange and PSII photochemical activity in maize are affected by different irradiance levels during short-term exposure to elevated CO₂. For this purpose gas exchange and chlorophyll a fluorescence were measured on maize plants grown at ambient CO₂ concentration (control CO₂) and exposed for 4 h to short-term treatments at 800 μmol(CO₂) mol⁻¹ (high CO₂) at a photosynthetic photon flux density (PPFD) of either 1,000 μmol m⁻² s⁻¹ (control light) or 1,900 μmol m⁻² s⁻¹ (high light). At control light, high-CO₂ leaves showed a significant decrease of net photosynthetic rate (P _N) and a rise in the ratio of intercellular to ambient CO₂ concentration (C _i/C _a) and water-use efficiency (WUE) compared to control CO₂ leaves. No difference between CO₂ concentrations for PSII effective photochemistry (Φ_PSII), photochemical quenching (q_p) and nonphotochemical quenching (NPQ) was detected. Under high light, high-CO₂ leaves did not differ in P _N, C _i/C _a, Φ_PSII and NPQ, but showed an increase of WUE. These results suggest that at control light photosynthetic apparatus is negatively affected by high CO₂ concentration in terms of carbon gain by limitations in photosynthetic dark reaction rather than in photochemistry. At high light, the elevated CO₂ concentration did not promote an increase of photosynthesis and photochemistry but only an improvement of water balance due to increased WUE.     

Intrinsic changes in photosynthetic parameters of carrot leaves under increasing CO<Subscript>2</Subscript> concentrations and soil moisture regimes

A controlled growth chamber experiment was conducted to investigate the short-term water use and photosynthetic responses of 30-d-old carrot seedlings to the combined effects of CO₂ concentration (50–1 050 μmol mol⁻¹) and moisture deficits (−5, −30, −55, and −70 kPa). The photosynthetic response data was fitted to a non-rectangular hyperbola model. The estimated parameters were compared for effects of moisture deficit and elevated CO₂ concentration (EC). The carboxylation efficiency (α) increased in response to mild moisture stress (−30 kPa) under EC when compared to the unstressed control. However, moderate (−55 kPa) and extreme (−70 kPa) moisture deficits reduced α under EC. Maximum net photosynthetic rate (P _Nmax) did not differ between mild water deficit and unstressed controls under EC. Moderate and extreme moisture deficits reduced P _Nmax by nearly 85 % compared to controls. Dark respiration rate (R _D) showed no consistent response to moisture deficit. The CO₂ compensation concentration (Γ) was 324 μmol mol⁻¹ for −75 kPa and ranged 63–93 μmol mol⁻¹ for other moisture regimes. Interaction between moisture deficit and EC was noticed for P _N, ratio of intercellular and ambient CO₂ concentration (C _i/C _a), stomatal conductance (g _s ), and transpiration rate (E). P _N was maximum and C _i/C _a was minimum at −30 kPa moisture deficit and at C _a of 350 μmol mol⁻¹. The g _s and E showed an inverse relationship at all moisture deficit regimes and EC. Water use efficiency (WUE) increased with moisture deficit up to −55 kPa and declined thereafter. EC showed a positive influence towards sustaining P _N and increasing WUE only under mild moisture stress, and no beneficial effects of EC were noticed at moderate or extreme moisture deficits.     

Seasonal changes in canopy photosynthesis and foliage respiration in a Rhizophora stylosa stand at the northern limit of its natural distribution

Gross photosynthesis and respiration rates of leaves at different canopy heights in a Rhizophora stylosa Griff. stand were measured monthly over 1 year at Manko Wetland, Okinawa Island, Japan, which is the northern limit of its distribution. The light-saturated net photosynthesis rate for the leaves at the top of the canopy showed a maximum value of 17 μmol CO₂ m⁻² s⁻¹ in warm season and a minimum value of 6 μmol CO₂ m⁻² s⁻¹ in cold season. The light-saturated gross photosynthesis and dark respiration rates of the leaves existing at the top of the canopy were 2−7 times and 3–16 times, respectively, those of leaves at the bottom of the canopy throughout the year. The light compensation point of leaves showed maximum and minimum peaks in warm season and cold season, respectively. The annual canopy gross photosynthesis, foliage respiration, and surplus production were estimated as 117, 49, and 68 t CO₂ ha⁻¹ year⁻¹, respectively. The energy efficiency of the annual canopy gross photosynthesis was 2.5%. The gross primary production GPP fell near the regression curve of GPP on the product of leaf area index and warmth index, the regression curve which was established for forests in the Western Pacific with humid climates.     

Growth and physiological changes in saplings of Minquartia guianensis and Swietenia macrophylla during acclimation to full sunlight

Low light availability under a forest canopy often limits plant growth; however, sudden increase in light intensity may induce photoinhibition of photosynthesis. The aim of this study was to evaluate the ecophysiological changes that occur in potted plants of Minquartia guianensis and Swietenia macrophylla during the acclimation process to full sunlight. We used six full-sun independent acclimation periods (30, 60, 90, 120, 150, and 180 days) and a control kept in the shade. Shading was obtained by placing plants under the canopy of a small forest. The F_v/F_m ratio, net photosynthetic rate (P _N), the maximum carboxylation velocity of Rubisco (V _cmax), maximum electron transport rate (J _max), specific leaf area (SLA), and growth were assessed at the end of each of the six acclimation periods. Plant exposure to full sunlight caused a sudden decrease in the F_v/F_m ratio (photoinhibition) particularly in Minquartia. Photooxidation (necrotic patches) of the leaf tissue was observed in upper leaves of Minquartia. The higher P _N values were observed in Swietenia under full sun, about 12 μmol(CO₂) m⁻² s⁻¹. V _cmax25 values were higher after 90 days of acclimation, about 14 μmol(CO₂) m⁻² s⁻¹ for Minquartia, and 35 μmol(CO₂) m⁻² s⁻¹ for Swietenia. At the end of a 180-d acclimation period J _max25 was 35 μmol(electron) m⁻² s⁻¹ for Minquartia and 60 μmol(electron) m⁻² s⁻¹ for Swietenia. SLA was higher in Swietenia than in Minquartia. In Minquartia, monthly rate of leaf production per plant (MRLP) was positive (0.22 leaf month⁻¹) after four months in the open. Whereas, in Swietenia MRLP was positive (0.56 leaf month⁻¹) after an acclimation period of two months. After six months in the open, height growth rates were 3.5 and 28 mm month⁻¹ for Minquartia and Swietenia, respectively. The greater acclimation capacity of Swietenia was associated to an enhanced photosynthetic plasticity under full sun. In Minquartia, transition to full-sun conditions and lack of physiological adjustment resulted in severe photoinhibition and loss of leaves.     

Leaf anatomy during leaf development of photoautotrophically <Emphasis Type="Italic">in vitro</Emphasis>-grown tobacco plants as affected by growth irradiance

Tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum L.) plants were cultured in vitro photoautotrophically at three levels of irradiance (PAR 400–700 nm): low (LI, 60 μmol m⁻² s⁻¹), middle (MI, 180 μmol m⁻² s⁻¹) and high (HI, 270 μmol m⁻² s⁻¹). Anatomy of the fourth leaf from bottom was followed during leaf development. In HI and MI plants, leaf area expansion started earlier as compared to LI plants, and both HI and MI plants developed some adaptations of sun species: leaves were thicker with higher proportion of palisade parenchyma to spongy parenchyma tissue. Furthermore, in HI and MI plants palisade and spongy parenchyma cells were larger and relative abundance of chloroplasts in parenchyma cells measured as chloroplasts cross-sectional area in the cell was lower than in LI plants. During leaf growth, chloroplasts crosssectional area in both palisade and spongy parenchyma cells in all treatments considerably decreased and finally it occupied only about 5 to 8 % of the cell cross-sectional area. Thus, leaf anatomy of photoautotrophically in vitro cultured plants showed a similar response to growth irradiance as in vivo grown plants, however, the formation of chloroplasts and therefore of photosynthetic apparatus was strongly impaired.     

Photosystem 2 activity of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Citrus volkameriana</Emphasis> (L.) leaves as affected by Mn nutrition and irradiance

Citrus volkameriana (L.) plants were grown for 43 d in nutrient solutions containing 0, 2, 14, 98, or 686 μM Mn (Mn₀, Mn₂, Mn₁₄, Mn₉₈, and Mn₆₈₆, respectively). To adequately investigate the combined effects of Mn nutrition and irradiance on photosystem 2 (PS2) activity, irradiance response curves for electron transport rate (ETR), nonphotochemical quenching (q_N), photochemical quenching (q_P), and real photochemical efficiency of PS2 (Φ_PS2) were recorded under 10 different irradiances (66, 96, 136, 226, 336, 536, 811, 1 211, 1 911, and 3 111 μmol m⁻² s⁻¹, I₆₆ to I₃₁₁₁, respectively) generated with the PAM-2000 fluorometer. Leaf chlorophyll content was significantly lower under Mn excess (Mn₆₈₆) compared to Mn₀; its highest values were recorded in the treatments Mn₂-Mn₉₈. However, ETR and Φ_PS2 values were significantly lower under Mn₀ compared to the other Mn treatments, when plants were exposed to irradiances ≥96 μmol m⁻² s⁻¹. Furthermore, Mn₀ plants had significantly higher values of q_N and lower values of q_P at irradiances ≤226 and ≥336 μmol m⁻² s⁻¹, respectively, than those grown under Mn₂-Mn₆₈₆. Irrespective of Mn treatment, the values of Φ_PS2 and q_N decreased, while those of q_P increased progressively by increasing irradiance from I₁₃₆ to I₃₁₁₁. Finally, Mn₂-Mn₉₈ plants were less sensitive to photoinhibition of photosynthesis (≥811 μmol m⁻² s⁻¹) than the Mn₆₈₆ (≥536 μmol m⁻² s⁻¹) and Mn₀ (≥336 μmol m⁻² s⁻¹) ones.     

Thidiazuron-induced high-frequency direct shoot organogenesis of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Cannabis sativa</Emphasis> L.

Induction of high-frequency shoot regeneration using nodal segments containing axillary buds from a 1-yr-old mother plants of Cannabis sativa was achieved on Murashige and Skoog (MS) medium containing 0.05–5.0 μM thidiazuron. The quality and quantity of regenerants were better with thidiazuron (0.5 μM thidiazuron) than with benzyladenine or kinetin. Adding 7.0 μM of gibberellic acid into a medium containing 0.5 μM thidiazuron slightly increased shoot growth. Elongated shoots when transferred to half-strength MS medium supplemented with 500 mg l⁻¹ activated charcoal and 2.5 μM indole-3-butyric acid resulted in 95% rooting. The rooted plants were successfully acclimatized in soil. Following acclimatization, growth performance of 4-mo-old in vitro propagated plants was compared with ex vitro vegetatively grown plants of the same age. The photosynthesis and transpiration characteristics were studied under different light levels (0, 500, 1,000, 1,500, or 2,000 μmol m⁻² s⁻¹). An increase in photosynthesis was observed with increase in the light intensity up to 1,500 μmol m⁻² s⁻¹ and then decreased subsequently at higher light levels in both types of plants. However, the increase was more pronounced at lower light intensities below 500 μmol m⁻² s⁻¹. Stomatal conductance and transpiration increased with light intensity up to highest level (2000 μmol m⁻² s⁻¹) tested. Intercellular CO₂ concentration (C _i) and the ratio of intercellular CO₂ concentration to ambient CO₂ (C _i/C _a) decreased with the increase in light intensity in both in vitro as well as ex vitro raised plants. The results show that in vitro propagated and hardened plants were functionally comparable to ex vitro plants of same age in terms of gas and water vapor exchange characteristics, within the limits of this study.     

Effects of water stress on gas exchange of field grown <Emphasis Type="Italic">Zea mays</Emphasis> L. in Southern Italy: an analysis at canopy and leaf level

Zea mays is cultivated in the Mediterranean regions where summer drought may lead to photoinhibition when irrigation is not available. In this work the response of maize to water stress was evaluated by gas exchange measurements at the canopy and leaf level. Leaf gas exchange was assessed before, during and after water stress, while canopy turbulent fluxes of mass and energy were performed on a continuous basis. In the early growth period, a linear increment of net ecosystem photosynthetic rate (P _NE) to incoming of photosynthetic photon flux density (PPFD) was found and net leaf photosynthetic rate (P _NL) showed the tendency to saturate under high irradiance. During water stress, the relationship between P _NE and PPFD became curvilinear and both P _NE and P _NL saturated in a range between 1,000 and 1,500 μmol (photons) m⁻² s⁻¹. Leaf water potential (ψ_l) dropped from −1.50 to −1.88 MPa during water stress, indicating that leaf and canopy gas exchanges were limited by stomatal conductance. With the restoration of irrigation, P _NE, P _NL and ψ_l showed a recovery, and P _NE and P _NL reached the highest values of whole study period. Leaf area index (LAI) reached a value of 3.0 m² m⁻². The relationship between P _NE and PPFD remained curvilinear and P _NE values were lower than those of a typical well-irrigated maize crop. The recovery in P _NE and P _NL after stress, and ψ_l values during stress indicate that the photosynthetic apparatus was not damaged while soil moisture stress after-effects resulted in a sub-optimal LAI values, which in turn depressed P _NE.     

Photosynthetic photon flux density,carbon dioxide concentration,and vapor pressure deficit effects on photosynthesis in cacao seedlings

Independent short-term effects of photosynthetic photon flux density (PPFD) of 50–400 μmol m⁻² s⁻¹, external CO₂ concentration (C _a) of 85–850 cm³ m⁻³, and vapor pressure deficit (VPD) of 0.9–2.2 kPa on net photosynthetic rate (P _N), stomatal conductance (g _s), leaf internal CO₂ concentration (C _i), and transpiration rates (E) were investigated in three cacao genotypes. In all these genotypes, increasing PPFD from 50 to 400 μmol m⁻² s⁻¹ increased P _N by about 50 %, but further increases in PPFD up to 1 500 μmol m⁻² s⁻¹ had no effect on P _N. Increasing C _a significantly increased P _N and C _i while g _s and E decreased more strongly than in most trees that have been studied. In all genotypes, increasing VPD reduced P _N, but the slight decrease in g _s and the slight increase in C _i with increasing VPD were non-significant. Increasing VPD significantly increased E and this may have caused the reduction in P _N. The unusually small response of g _s to VPD could limit the ability of cacao to grow where VPD is high. There were no significant differences in gas exchange characteristics (g _s, C _i, E) among the three cacao genotypes under any measurement conditions.