Uromyces fabae: development, metabolism, and interactions with its host Vicia faba

This MiniReview is intended to provide an overview of the current knowledge regarding cytological, physiological, and molecular aspects of Uromyces fabae. For almost five decades this rust fungus has served as a model system to gain insight into the features characterizing an obligate biotrophic parasite. While earlier studies mostly focused on cytological aspects, later studies were concerned with biochemical and molecular characteristics. Despite the fact that there is still no stable transformation system available for any obligate biotroph, recent molecular analyses have provided new insights into this highly sophisticated interaction of a fungus with its host.     

The control of Aphis fabae Scop, on spring-sown field beans (Vicia faba L.)

Disulfoton or phorate granules or demeton-S-methyl, menazon and vamidothion sprays, applied once in early June as preventive treatments before heavy aphid colonies developed, gave good control of Aphis fabae Scop, on field beans. Phosalone gave relatively poor results and DDT was ineffective. Applications in June to crops sown in February and early March were made with minimal wheel damage to the crop and are known to be less harmful to bees than sprays at flowering time. Eradicant treatments with demeton-S-methyl and dimethoate sprays or with disulfoton or phorate granules on heavily infested plants during flowering were also effective, but menazon was less satisfactory. These eradicant sprays are likely to be harmful to bees, and wheel damage in late June reduced yield by 1–2 cwt/acre (125–250 kg/ha). Peak populations of 3000 aphids/plant in early July reduced yield by 6 cwt/acre (750 kg/ha) in one trial.     

The feeding and excretion rates of Aphis fabae Scop. on Vicia faba L.

The feeding and excretion rates of nymphs of Aphis fabae, feeding on young leaves of Vicia faba, were studied, using host plants grown in water culture and made radioactive with 32P. The amounts of sap ingested at first were small but the rate of ingestion increased rapidly between 12 and 16 hr. The maximum rate of feeding was estimated at 0.2 mg sap/hr, an uptake of 59 per cent of the mean body weight of the insects per hour. The results are discussed in relation to other recent work on aphid feeding and excretion.

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Zusammenfassung Unter Benutzung von Wirtspflanzen, die in Wasserkultur angezogen und mit 32P radioaktiv gemacht waren, wurden Nahrungsaufnahme- und Exkretionsraten der Larven von Aphis fabae untersucht, die an jungen Blättern von Vicia faba saugten. Die aufgenommenen Saftmengen wurden für Zeitabschnitte von 1–24 Stunden Dauer geprüft. Die maximale Nahrungsaufnahmerate wurde mit 0,2 mg/Stunden geschätzt. Die Exkretionsrate von 32P variierte beträchtlich, war aber bei kürzerer Nahrungsaufnahme von weniger als 12 Stunden Dauer höher, und bei längeren Nahrungsaufnahmezeiten niedriger und weniger variabel. Die Ergebnisse werden im Hinblick auf andere neuere Arbeiten über die Ernährung und Exkretion von Blattläusen diskutiert. Es wird vermutet, daß die maximale Rate der Nahrungsaufname, die für diese Insekten angegeben wird, unter den Bedingungen des Versuchs die normale war und daß die Mehrzahl der Aphiden offenbar 12 Stunden oder mehr brauchen, um mit ihren Stechborsten bis zum Phloem vorzudringen.

     

The energetics and growth efficiency of Aphis fabae Scop. Reared on different parts of the broad bean plant (Vicia faba)

Apterous virginoparae of A. fabae were reared on four different parts of broad bean seedlings. The energy channeled into larval growth, exuvia, adult reproduction and excretion was measured throughout the aphid's life. The greatest differences in the energy budgets were during reproductive life when aphids living on young stems fed at a much greater rate and were more fecund than those living on mature stems. There were also considerable differences in energy utilization of aphids reared on young plant growth and mature plant growth but there were few differences between stem and leaf dwellers.

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Résumé Le puceron noir de la fève A. fabae, bien que vivant normalement sur les extrêmités des tiges en croissance des plantes herbacées, peut en fait vivre et se reproduire sur d'autres parties de la plante. Le budget énergétique de cet insecte a été établi comparativement pour des pucerons vivant sur de jeunes tiges sur de jeunes feuilles, sur des tiges et des feuilles pleinement développées de pieds issus de semis. On a mesuré pour des aphides élevés sur chacun de ces sites: l'énergie utilisée pour la croissance pondérale au cours de la croissance larvaire, Pg, l'énergie correspondant aux exuvies larvaires Pe, l'énergie utilisée pour la reproduction de l'adulte Pr, celle correspondant aux excrétions de la larve et de l'adulte. Pour des pucerons vivant sur des feuilles pleinement développées on trouvé: Pg=10% de l'énergie totale consommée, Pr=45%; Pe 1%; R 7% et F+U 37%. Pour des pucerons vivant sur des jeunes feuilles: Pg=7%; Pr 34%; Pe 1%, R 5% et F+U 53%. Pour des pucerons vivant sur des tiges âgées: Pr=18%, Pr 36%; Pe 1%, R 8% et F+U 37%. Pour des pucerons élevés sur jeunes tiges: Pg 9%, Pr 42%; Pe 1%, R 6% et F+U 43%. Les différences les plus significatives s'observent pour des pucerons adultes dont l'énergie utilisée pour la reproduction est sérieusement réduite pour les individus s'alimentant sur des tiges âgées.

     

The effect of host plants on genotype variability in fitness and honeydew composition of Aphis fabae

Aphid species can be polyphagous, feeding on multiple host plants across genera. As host plant species can have large variation in their phloem composition, this can affect aphid fitness and honeydew composition. Previous research showed significant intraspecific genotype variation in the composition of the honeydew carbohydrates of the black bean aphid Aphis fabae, with the ant attractant trisaccharide melezitose showing especially large variation across different genotypes. In this study, we test if variation in melezitose and carbohydrate composition of aphid honeydew could be linked to the adaptation of specific aphid genotypes to particular host plants. To this end, 4 high and 5 low melezitose secreting genotypes of the black bean aphid Aphis fabae were reared on 4 common host plants: broad bean, goosefoot, beet, and poppy. The carbohydrate composition, and in particular melezitose secretion, showed important aphid genotype and host plant interactions, with some genotypes being high melezitose secreting on 1 host plant but not on another. However, the interaction effects were not paralleled in the fitness measurements, even though there were significant differences in the average fitness across the different host plants. On the whole, this study demonstrates that aphid honeydew composition is influenced by complex herbivore–plant interactions. We discuss the relevance of these findings in the context of ant–aphid mutualisms and adaptive specialization in aphids.     

Field evaluation of resistance to black bean aphid, Aphis fabae, in close relatives of the Faba bean, Vicia faba

A field assessment of 26 accessions of Vicia narbonensis and three of V. johannis confirmed previous laboratory studies demonstrating higher levels of resistance to Aphis fabae in these two wild species compared to the closely related crop, Vicia faba. Accessions of V. johannis were significantly more resistant than most accessions of V. narbonensis for all resistance indices measured except survival of aphid nymphs. Plant growth stage significantly affected levels of resistance in both Vicia species, resistance being moderate at pre-bud stage, decreasing on flowering and rising again at pod fill and onset of leaf senescence. Significant intraspecific variability in aphid resistance was found only within the 26 accessions of V. narbonensis, var. serratifolia being more resistant than var. narbonensis. Possible resistance factors and the agronomic potential of these two wild relatives of Faba bean are considered.     

Economics of forecasting for chemical control of the black bean aphid, Aphis fabae, on the field bean, Vicia faba

The economics of a forecasting scheme for predicting the need for chemical control of the black bean aphid, Aphis fabae, on spring-sown field beans, Vicia faba, are compared with alternative control strategies, namely no treatment, eradicant treatment and routine preventive treatment. Two criteria are assessed. First, the ‘risk’ of lost revenue from wrong control decisions and, secondly, the overall profitability of the strategy. A wrong decision is made when a profitable treatment is not applied or when an unprofitable one is applied. These constitute ‘risk’ for the grower. The forecasting scheme involves least risk of monetary loss and the most acceptable alternative strategy is the routine preventive treatment. Relative to the routine treatment, a gain averaging £3.78/ha of bean crop would have been made between the years 1970-5 by adopting control based on the forecasting scheme. There was considerable year-by-year and area-to-area variation in monetary benefits, with the largest gains in areas where economic damage occurred least frequently and where relatively large areas of beans are grown, as in East Anglia. Other benefits of using the forecasting scheme, e.g. correct timing of chemical application, are discussed but not evaluated.     

Probing behaviour of Aphis craccivora Koch on host plants of different nutritional quality

Abstract 1. Reciprocal transfer experiments were undertaken using four different hosts to examine the effects of a change in host at adult moult on the probing behaviour of the cowpea aphid Aphis craccivora Koch.
2. The highest intrinsic rate of increase r _m was achieved by aphids born and reared on cowpea, followed by those born and reared on broad bean, then Larissa, and finally Huia.
3. Mean probing time, time to first probe, number of probes per time allocation, and non-probing time were all examined. Host quality r _m did not affect the instantaneous probability of probing, and aphids that did not find a probing site within 200 s did not settle and did not probe further on that leaf/stem.     

Effects of Aphis fabae Scop, and of its attendant ants and insect predators on yields of field beans (Vicia faba L.)

Predators (mainly coccinellid adults and larvae and syrphid larvae), although few, were important in decreasing numbers of Aphis fabae on a small plot of field beans during the early stages of infestation in a year favourable to the aphid. At the same time, ants (Lasius niger L.), attending aphids on other plants on the same plot, effectively protected the aphids from predators for about 2 weeks, enabling the attended aphids to multiply faster than the unattended. When all aphid populations started to decline, predators became more numerous and accelerated the decline on both sets of plants. Bean plants without aphids yielded fifty-six seeds per plant; those with aphids but free from ants gave seventeen; and those with ant-attended aphids, eight seeds per plant. The damage and loss of yield was caused by the large aphid populations that developed when the pods were maturing, and not by the fewer aphids present when the plants were in flower. It appears that small, temporary infestations during flowering might increase the yield of field beans.     

The nature and causes of annual fluctuations in numbers of Aphis fabae Scop. on field beans (Vicia faba)

Experiments for nine successive years showed that Aphis fabae Scop. populations on mid-March-sown field beans were either large with peak densities between late June and mid-July or very small with peak densities in early August. It is concluded that the largest populations develop when many plants have been colonized by primary migrants from Euonymus europaeus and temperature and radiation are above average during June and early July, as in the year 1957. Cold, dull weather slows multiplication and decreases the size of the peak population even when there is a large initial colonization, as in 1954. The peak population may also be less than predicted from the initial colonization when natural enemies are exceptionally abundant in early June, as in the year 1960. Yield losses of mid-March-sown crops in years of large A. fabae populations ranged from 53 % in 1954 (peak population of 1260 aphids per plant) to 100% in 1957 (6920 aphids per plant). Small summer populations with peak densities of about 0·2–85 aphids per plant developed on mid-March-sown plots in years when fewer than about 6% of the plants were colonized by primary migrants. Yield losses ranged from 6·3–13·6%. Three years' experiments indicated that crops sown in late April or May are relatively lightly infested in years when large populations develop on mid-March-sown crops. Conversely, they may be relatively heavily infested when the populations on these crops are small, as in 1955 when temperatures and sunshine during July and early August were above average. Small and large early summer populations tend to alternate in successive years. The alternation is upset by hot, sunny weather during July and August, and perhaps September and October, which compresses the population cycle Thus the large and small populations expected from this alternation in 1956 and 1960 developed instead during exceptionally fine weather in late summer 1955 and 1959, converting 1956 and 1960 to years of small and large populations respectively.     

Some effects of benomyl and carbendazim on Aphis fabae and Acyrthosiphon pisum on field bean (Vicia faba)

Field bean plants were treated with benomyl in a glasshouse, then nymphs of Aphis fabae and Acyrthosiphon pisum were caged on the second pinnate leaf. Soil drenches at concentrations of 150 and 75 μg benomyl/ml or above increased mortality of A. fabae and A. pisum respectively; 250 μg a.i./ml increased mortality and decreased progeny production of alate A. fabae. The effect on mortality persisted for at least 16 days after treatment. Foliar sprays increased mortality at concentrations of 75 μg a.i./ml and above (A. fabae). Field populations of A. pisum were reduced when bean plants were drenched or sprayed at a concentration of 250 μg a.i./ml and A. fabae populations were reduced by drenches but not by foliar sprays. A commercial formulation of carbendazim (Bavistin) increased aphid mortality whereas the formulation medium did not. Under the experimental conditions, benomyl affected the distribution of both species on young bean plants but did not induce a repellent effect; aphids preferred untreated leaves. Mortality and preference tests, and a field experiment, indicated that A. pisum was affected more than A. fabae.     

Effects of Aphis fabae and Uromyces viciae-favae on the growth of a susceptible and an aphid resistant cultivar of Vicia faba

Damaging effects of either black bean aphid (Aphis fabae), broad bean rust (Uromyces viciae-fabae), or the combination of both were investigated on a susceptible (cv. Diana) and an aphid resistant (cv. Bolero) cultivar of Vicia faba. When compared with rust, aphids caused greater reductions of root dry weight, shoot dry weight, leaf area, and mean relative growth rate. The mean unit leaf rate was also reduced whereas the leaf area ratio was not affected. The damage caused per aphid was highest on the susceptible cultivar. Rust induced damage did not differ between the cultivars. Concomitant infestation with both pests only resulted in additive damage. The population development of aphids was delayed on partially resistant plants. High temperature and rust infection reduced the total number of aphids the plants were able to support but not the level of resistance. Thus the specific damaging effect per aphid was increased.     

The feeding behaviour of two leafhoppers on Vicia faba

Abstract.

• 1 The feeding behaviour of the two Typhlocybinae Empoasca decipiens Paoli and Eupteryx atropunctata Goetze and the nature of the damage caused to Vicia faba L. were investigated.
• 2 Sections with stylets in situ, i.e. within the plant, were obtained. Eupteryx atropunctata sucked mainly from the palisade parenchyma of the leaf, while several generations of Empoasca decipiens could also live from the stem parenchyma and pierced into phloem if this was reachable.

     

The use of egg counts and suction trap samples to forecast the infestation of spring-sown field beans, Vicia faba, by the black bean aphid, Aphis fabae

Daily suction trap samples at a height of 12·2 m collected throughout the year, winter egg and ‘spring’ population counts on the spindle tree, Euonymus europaeus, and initial infestations of the black bean aphid, Aphis fabae, on field bean, Vicia faba, crops are available from Southern England since 1970. In different areas, estimates of the sizes of the autumn migrations, the over-wintering egg populations, the spring fundatrigeniae and the spring migrations, have been used to forecast field bean crop infestation levels which, in turn, project subsequent trap catches of alatae. The forecasts of crop infestation become progressively more accurate from the autumn migration to the following spring migration, accounting for 28%, 54%, 54% and 64% of the variance respectively. In areas where traps are sited, the spring migration trap samples give the most accurate estimate of the size and timing of crop infestation. Autumn trap catches are particularly useful as very early forecasts of likely very large or very small populations on field beans about 8 months later, but otherwise they lack precision. Egg sampling in winter provides a considerably more accurate forecast approximately 5 months before crop infestations. In spring (May), fundatrigeniae sampled on spindle are most useful for predicting time of migration, and provide approximately 2 weeks' warning for insecticide application, if needed. Finally, trap sampling of the spring migration provides the latest estimate of both the sizes of crop infestations and the timing of insecticide treatment. The E. europaeus and aerial sampling systems are complementary, the traps providing systematic, continuous information and the E. europaeus samples greater detail. Combined, they can provide excellent long-term fore-warning of the need for chemical control and short-term warning of control timing. Forecasts have been 90% correct in eight years out of nine. The error in the ninth year may be due to immigration from the European mainland.     

Soil pH alters the biological parameters of cowpea aphid Aphis craccivora Koch (Hemiptera: Aphididae) on its host plant Vicia faba

The biotic and abiotic factors including the agricultural implementation can modify soil acidification. We hypothesized that soil pH should as repercussion, alter the plant physiological and physical properties and eventually affect insect herbivores including agricultural pests. This study aimed to evaluate the impact of seven levels of soil pH on the performance of cowpea aphid Aphis craccivora on Vicia faba. Significant relationships between soil pH and growth of host bean seedlings or development and reproduction of the aphid were detected. Data demonstrated significant differences in the total longevity, the pre-reproductive, reproductive, post-reproductive and pre-viviparity periods. Within a suitable range of pH for bean growth between pH 5.3 and pH 7.2, the aphid performance was worse on seedlings growing better, however, under unfavorable extreme pH conditions, plant quality measured as height did not affect the aphids anymore and their performance was uniformly low except the case in pH 8.1 condition in which the best aphid reproduction was observed. The results confirm that soil pH affect the performance of cowpea aphid A. craccivora and also exhibited strong influence on the growth of broad bean plants.     

Abortive feeding behaviour in a black aphid of the Aphis fabae group

A black Aphis sp. on Tropaeolum can be separated, morphologically, from A. fabae Scop. In controlled experiments this aphid, both winged and wingless forms, actively selects Vicia faba as a host plant, settles to feed and reproduce, but always dies prematurely. Offspring also soon die. The aphid is unable to take up plant sap from beans. The behaviour associated with host plant selection is not adjusted to its feeding requirements.

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Zusammenfassung Eine Aphis-Art der A. fabae-Gruppe, die in Südengland häufig an Tropaeolum majus zu finden ist, kann von A. fabae und ihren nächsten Verwandten durch das lange Endsegment des Rüssels unterschieden werden.Junge ungeflügelte Imagines von A. fabae, die noch nicht zur Fortpflanzung geschritten sind, verhalten sich, wie die Geflügelten, sehr kritisch bei der Wahl der Wirtspflanzen. Auf ungeeigneten Wirten siedeln sie sich weder zur Nahrungsaufnahme noch zum Absetzen von Junglarven an.Die Lebensabläufe von Blattläusen, die freie Wahl zur Annahme oder Verweigerung ihrer Wirte hatten, wurden verglichen bei A. fabae an Ackerbohnen und der Tropaeolum-Laus and Kapuzinerkresse und Ackerbohnen.Es wird gezeigt, daß die Tropaeolum-Laus Ackerbohnen leicht annimmt und an ihnen Junge absetzt. Auch Geflügelte versuchen diese Bohnen zu besiedeln. Sowohl Geflügelte wie Larven sterben jedoch an Bohnen ab. Ihr Wirtswahlverhalten ist ihren Nahrungsanforderungen nicht angepaßt.Bei einem Übertragungsversuch auf Bohnen und zurück auf Kapuzinerkresse zeigen die Exkretionsraten, daß die Blattläuse auf Bohnen keinen Pflanzensaft aufnehmen, obwohl ihre Stechborsten ins Pflanzengewebe eingesenkt bleiben.