Bacterial Reduction of Cr(VI) and Fe(III) in In Vitro Conditions

ABSTRACT Chemical reduction of Cr(VI) can be a strategy to detoxify toxic metals in oxidized states, whereas reduction of Fe(III) could enhance the availability of Fe in the form of Fe(II) to boost plant growth. However, it creates another problem of chemical sludge disposal. Hence, microbial conversion of Cr(VI) to Cr(III) and Fe(III) to Fe(II) is preferred over the chemical method. Out of 11 bacterial strains isolated from the rhizospheric zone of Typha latifolia growing on fly ash dump sites, four isolates were selected for the reduction of Cr(VI) and Fe(III) and were identified as Micrococcus roseus NBRFT2 (MTCC 9018), Bacillus endophyticus NBRFT4 (MTCC 9021), Paenibacillus macerans NBRFT5 (MTCC 8912), and Bacillus pumilus NBRFT9 (MTCC 8913). These strains were individually tested for survival at different concentrations of Cr(VI) and Fe(III), pH, and temperature, and then, their ability for reduction of both metals was evaluated at optimum pH 8.0 and temperature 35°C. The results indicated that NBRFT5 was able to reduce the maximum amount, 99% Cr(VI) and 98% Fe(III). Other strains also reduced these metals to different levels, but less than NBRFT5. Hence, these strains may be used for decontamination of metal-contaminated sites, particularly with Cr(VI) and Fe(III) through the reduction process.     

Biogeochemical Elimination of Chromium (VI) from Contaminated Water

Ferrous iron [Fe(II)] reductively transforms heavy metals in contaminated groundwater, and the bacterial reduction of indigenous ferric iron [Fe(III)] to Fe(II) has been proposed as a means of establishing redox reactive barriers in the subsurface. The reduction of Fe(III) to Fe(II) can be accomplished by stimulation of indigenous dissimilatory metal-reducing bacteria (DMRB) or injection of DMRB into the subsurface. The microbially produced Fe(II) can chemically react with contaminants such as Cr(VI) to form insoluble Cr(III) precipitates. The DMRB Shewanella algae BrY reduced surface-associated Fe(III) to Fe(II), which in batch and column experiments chemically reduced highly soluble Cr(VI) to insoluble Cr(III). Once the chemical Cr(VI) reduction capacity of the Fe(II)/Fe(III) couple in the experimental systems was exhausted, the addition of S. algae BrY allowed for the repeated reduction of Fe(III) to Fe(II), which again reduced Cr(VI) to Cr(III). The research presented herein indicates that a biological process using DMRB allows the establishment of a biogeochemical cycle that facilitates chromium precipitation. Such a system could provide a means for establishing and maintaining remedial redox reactive zones in Fe(III)-bearing subsurface environments.     

Comparative study of the extracellular proteome of Sulfolobus species reveals limited secretion

Although a large number of potentially secreted proteins can be predicted on the basis of genomic distribution of signal sequence-bearing proteins, protein secretion in Archaea has barely been studied. A proteomic inventory and comparison of the growth medium proteins in three hyperthermoacidophiles, i.e., Sulfolobus solfataricus, S. acidocaldarius and S. tokodaii, indicates that only few proteins are freely secreted into the growth medium and that the majority originates from cell envelope bound forms. In S. acidocaldarius both cell-associated and secreted α-amylase activities are detected. Inactivation of the amyA gene resulted in a complete loss of activity, suggesting that the same protein is responsible for the a-amylase activity at both locations. It is concluded that protein secretion in Sulfolobus is a limited process, and it is suggested that the S-layer may act as a barrier for the free diffusion of folded proteins into the medium.     

Mutation and reversion frequencies of different Sulfolobus species and strains

We have determined the apparent and actual spontaneous mutation frequencies and rates for different species and strains of the thermoacidophilic crenarchaeote Sulfolobus. The proportion of mutations caused by insertion sequences has also been analyzed. Mutation frequencies for S. islandicus (0.08–0.6 mutations per cell division and 10⁷ cells) were below those determined for S. solfataricus and comparable to or lower than those for S. acidocaldarius. The proportion of insertion sequence mutations for the S. islandicus strains REN1H1 (9 out of 230) and HVE10/4 (0 out of 24) was found to be considerably lower than in S. solfataricus P1 and P2 and also low in comparison to other S. islandicus strains. Mutants defective in either the pyrEF genes or the lacS gene have been isolated. Their growth phenotype on selective and non-selective medium was examined and the inactivating mutations in either of the genes were determined. In addition the reversion frequencies for these mutants were measured and found to be in the range of <0.6–1.5 mutations per cell division and 10⁸ cells. However, when being subjected to electroporation as a transformation procedure, increased reversion was observed.     

New insights into the diversity and evolution of the archaeal mobilome from three complete genomes of Saccharolobus shibatae

Saccharolobus (formerly Sulfolobus) shibatae B12, isolated from a hot spring in Beppu, Japan in 1982, is one of the first hyperthermophilic and acidophilic archaeal species to be discovered. It serves as a natural host to the extensively studied spindle-shaped virus SSV1, a prototype of the Fuselloviridae family. Two additional Sa. shibatae strains, BEU9 and S38A, sensitive to viruses of the families Lipothrixviridae and Portogloboviridae, respectively, have been isolated more recently. However, none of the strains has been fully sequenced, limiting their utility for studies on archaeal biology and virus–host interactions. Here, we present the complete genome sequences of all three Sa. shibatae strains and explore the rich diversity of their integrated mobile genetic elements (MGE), including transposable insertion sequences, integrative and conjugative elements, plasmids, and viruses, some of which were also detected in the extrachromosomal form. Analysis of related MGEs in other Sulfolobales species and patterns of CRISPR spacer targeting revealed a complex network of MGE distributions, involving horizontal spread and relatively frequent host switching by MGEs over large phylogenetic distances, involving species of the genera Saccharolobus, Sulfurisphaera and Acidianus. Furthermore, we characterize a remarkable case of a virus-to-plasmid transition, whereby a fusellovirus has lost the genes encoding for the capsid proteins, while retaining the replication module, effectively becoming a plasmid.     

Isolate B12, which harbours a virus-like element,represents a new species of the archaebacterial genus Sulfolobus,Sulfolobus shibatae,sp. nov.

The Sulfolobus isolate B12 and its endogenous virus-like element SSV1 have provided a fruitful system for detailed analysis of certain aspects of archaebacterial molecular biology, especially those concerning gene expression. In the course of clarifying this isolate's taxonomic position, we determined DNA base composition, ability to grow autotrophically, nucleotide sequence of 16S ribosomal RNA, and level of total genomic homology to other Sulfolobus strains. Although the results generally demonstrate a similarity to S. solfataricus, DNA-DNA hybridisation and 16S rRNA sequence data indicate that isolate B12 in fact represents a distinct species.Abbreviations DSM Deutsche Sammlung von Mikroorganismen, Mascheroder Weg 1 B, D-3300 Braunschweig, FRG - SDS-PAGE sodium dodecyl sulphate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis     

Identification of sn-Glycerol-1-phosphate Dehydrogenase Activity from Genomic Information on a Hyperthermophilic Archaeon,Sulfolobus tokodaii Strain 7

sn-Glycerol-1-phosphate dehydrogenase is responsible for the formation of sn-glycerol-1-phosphate, the backbone of membrane phospholipids of Archaea. This activity had never been detected in cell-free extract of Sulfolobus sp. Here we report the detection of this activity on the thermostable ST0344 protein of Sulfolobus tokodaii expressed in Escherichia coli, which was predicted from genomic information on S. tokodaii. This is another line of evidence for the general mechanism of sn-glycerol-1-phosphate formation by the enzyme.     

Proteomic analysis of secreted membrane vesicles of archaeal Sulfolobus species reveals the presence of endosome sorting complex components

The crenarchaea Sulfolobus acidocaldarius, S. solfataricus and S. tokodaii, release membrane vesicles into the medium. These membrane vesicles consist of tetraether lipids and are coated with an S-layer. A proteomic analysis reveals the presence of proteins homologous to subunits of the eukaryotic endosomal sorting complex required for transport (ESCRT). Immunodetection of one of these homologs suggest a cell surface localization in intact cells. These data suggest that the membrane vesicles in Sulfolobus sp. emerge from a specific budding process with similarity to the endosomal sorting pathway.     

Hydrogenases in sulfate-reducing bacteria function as chromium reductase

The ability of sulfate-reducing bacteria (SRB) to reduce chromate VI has been studied for possible application to the decontamination of polluted environments. Metal reduction can be achieved both chemically, by H₂S produced by the bacteria, and enzymatically, by polyhemic cytochromes c₃. We demonstrate that, in addition to low potential polyheme c-type cytochromes, the ability to reduce chromate is widespread among [Fe], [NiFe], and [NiFeSe] hydrogenases isolated from SRB of the genera Desulfovibrio and Desulfomicrobium. Among them, the [Fe] hydrogenase from Desulfovibrio vulgaris strain Hildenborough reduces Cr(VI) with the highest rate. Both [Fe] and [NiFeSe] enzymes exhibit the same K_m towards Cr(VI), suggesting that Cr(VI) reduction rates are directly correlated with hydrogen consumption rates. Electron paramagnetic resonance spectroscopy enabled us to probe the oxidation by Cr(VI) of the various metal centers in both [NiFe] and [Fe] hydrogenases. These experiments showed that Cr(VI) is reduced to paramagnetic Cr(III), and revealed inhibition of the enzyme at high Cr(VI) concentrations. The significant decrease of both hydrogenase and Cr(VI)-reductase activities in a mutant lacking [Fe] hydrogenase demonstrated the involvement of this enzyme in Cr(VI) reduction in vivo. Experiments with [3Fe-4S] ferredoxin from Desulfovibrio gigas demonstrated that the low redox [Fe-S] (non-heme iron) clusters are involved in the mechanism of metal reduction by hydrogenases.     

Reduction of Fe(III), Mn(IV), and Toxic Metals at 100°C by Pyrobaculum islandicum

It has recently been noted that a diversity of hyperthermophilic microorganisms have the ability to reduce Fe(III) with hydrogen as the electron donor, but the reduction of Fe(III) or other metals by these organisms has not been previously examined in detail. When Pyrobaculum islandicum was grown at 100°C in a medium with hydrogen as the electron donor and Fe(III)-citrate as the electron acceptor, the increase in cell numbers of P. islandicum per mole of Fe(III) reduced was found to be ca. 10-fold higher than previously reported. Poorly crystalline Fe(III) oxide could also serve as the electron acceptor for growth on hydrogen. The stoichiometry of hydrogen uptake and Fe(III) oxide reduction was consistent with the oxidation of 1 mol of hydrogen resulting in the reduction of 2 mol of Fe(III). The poorly crystalline Fe(III) oxide was reduced to extracellular magnetite. P. islandicum could not effectively reduce the crystalline Fe(III) oxide minerals goethite and hematite. In addition to using hydrogen as an electron donor for Fe(III) reduction, P. islandicum grew via Fe(III) reduction in media in which peptone and yeast extract served as potential electron donors. The closely related species P. aerophilum grew via Fe(III) reduction in a similar complex medium. Cell suspensions of P. islandicum reduced the following metals with hydrogen as the electron donor: U(VI), Tc(VII), Cr(VI), Co(III), and Mn(IV). The reduction of these metals was dependent upon the presence of cells and hydrogen. The metalloids arsenate and selenate were not reduced. U(VI) was reduced to the insoluble U(IV) mineral uraninite, which was extracellular. Tc(VII) was reduced to insoluble Tc(IV) or Tc(V). Cr(VI) was reduced to the less toxic, less soluble Cr(III). Co(III) was reduced to Co(II). Mn(IV) was reduced to Mn(II) with the formation of manganese carbonate. These results demonstrate that biological reduction may contribute to the speciation of metals in hydrothermal environments and could account for such phenomena as magnetite accumulation and the formation of uranium deposits at ca. 100°C. Reduction of toxic metals with hyperthermophilic microorganisms or their enzymes might be applied to the remediation of metal-contaminated waters or waste streams.     

Evolutionary conservation and DNA binding properties of the Ssh7 proteins fromSulfolobus shibatae

The thermoacidophilic archaeon Sulfolobus shibatae synthesizes a large amount of the 7-ku DNA binding proteins known as Ssh7. Our hybridization experiments showed that two Ssh7-encoding genes existed in the genome of S. shibatae. These two genes, designated ssh7a and ssh7b, have been cloned, sequenced and expressed in Escherichia coli. The two Ssh7 proteins differ only at three amino acid positions. In addition, the cis-regulatory sequences of the ssh7a and ssh7b genes are highly conserved. These results suggest the presence of a selective pressure to maintain not only the sequence but also the expression of the two genes. We have also found that there are two genes encoding the 7-ku protein in Sulfolobus solfataricus. Based on this and other studies, we suggest that the gene encoding the 7-ku protein underwent duplication before the separation of Sulfolobus species. Binding of native Ssh7 and recombinant (r)Ssh7 to short duplex DNA fragments was analyzed by electrophoretic mobility shift assays. Both native and recombinant forms of the protein behaved in a similar fashion in the assays, suggesting that the interaction of Ssh7 with DNA is not affected either by specific lysine methylation found in the native Ssh7 proteins or by the difference between the two Ssh7 isomers in amino acid sequence. Our data show that Ssh7 binds duplex DNA fragments with a binding size of ~ 6.6 base pairs and an apparent dissociation constant of (0.7—1.0)×10^-7 mol/L under the assay conditions employed in the present study. In addition, Ssh7 binds more tightly to negatively supercoiled DNA than to linear or relaxed DNA. :     

Evolutionary conservation and DNA binding properties of the Ssh7 proteins fromSulfolobus shibatae

The thermoacidophilic archaeonSulfolobus shibatae synthesizes a large amount of the 7-ku DNA binding proteins known as Ssh7. Our hybridization experiments showed that two Ssh7-encoding genes existed in the genome of S.shibatae. These two genes, designatedssh7a andssh7b, have been cloned, sequenced and expressed inEscherichia coli. The two Ssh7 proteins differ only at three amino acid positions. In addition, thecis-regulatory sequences of thessh7a andssh7b genes are highly conserved. These results suggest the presence of a selective pressure to maintain not only the sequence but also the expression of the two genes. We have also found that there are two genes encoding the 7-ku protein inSulfolobus solfataricus. Based on this and other studies, we suggest that the gene encoding the 7-ku protein underwent duplication before the separation ofSulfolobus species. Binding of native Ssh7 and recombinant (r)Ssh7 to short duplex DNA fragments was analyzed by electrophoretic mobility shift assays. Both native and recombinant forms of the protein behaved in a similar fashion in the assays, suggesting that the interaction of Ssh7 with DNA is not affected either by specific lysine methylation found in the native Ssh7 proteins or by the difference between the two Ssh7 isomers in amino acid sequence. Our data show that Ssh7 binds duplex DNA fragments with a binding size of ∼ 6.6 base pairs and an apparent dissociation constant of (0.7–1.0) × 10^-7 mol/L under the assay conditions employed in the present study. In addition, Ssh7 binds more tightly to negatively supercoiled DNA than to linear or relaxed DNA.     

Comparison of the DING protein from the archaeon Sulfolobus solfataricus with human phosphate-binding protein and Pseudomonas fluorescence DING counterparts

DING proteins represent a new group of 40 kDa-related members, ubiquitous in living organisms. The family also include the DING protein from Sulfolobus solfataricus, functionally related to poly(ADP-ribose) polymerases. Here, the archaeal protein has been compared with the human Phosphate-Binding Protein and the Pseudomonas fluorescence DING enzyme, by enzyme assays and immune cross-reactivity. Surprisingly, as the Sulfolobus enzyme, the Human and Pseudomonas proteins display poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase activity, whereas a phosphatase activity was only present in Sulfolobus and human protein, despite the conserved phosphate-binding site residues in Pseudomonas DING. All proteins were positive to anti-DING antibodies and gave a comparable pattern of anti-poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase immunoreactivity with two bands, at around 40 kDa and roughly at the double of this molecular mass. The latter signal was present in all Sulfolobus enzyme preparations and proved not due to either a contaminant or a precursor protein, but likely being a dimeric form of the 40 kDa polypeptide. The common immunological and partly enzymatic behavior linking human, Pseudomonas and Sulfolobus DING proteins, makes the archaeal protein an important model system to investigate DING protein function and evolution within the cell.

     

Small Abundant DNA Binding Proteins from the Thermoacidophilic Archaeon Sulfolobus shibatae Constrain Negative DNA Supercoils

Major DNA binding proteins, designated Ssh7, were purified from the thermoacidophilic archaeon Sulfolobus shibatae. The Ssh7 proteins have an apparent molecular mass of 6.5 kDa and are similar to the 7-kDa DNA binding proteins from Sulfolobus acidocaldarius and Sulfolobus solfataricus in N-terminal amino acid sequence. The proteins constitute about 4.8% of the cellular protein. Upon binding to DNA, the Ssh7 proteins constrain negative supercoils. At the tested Ssh7/DNA mass ratios (0 to 1.65), one negative supercoil was taken up by approximately 20 Ssh7 molecules. Our results, together with the observation that the viral DNA isolated from S. shibatae is relaxed, suggest that regions of free DNA in the S. shibatae genome, if present, are highly positively supercoiled.     

Geovibrio ferrireducens,a phylogenetically distinct dissimilatory Fe(III)-reducing bacterium

A new, phylogenetically distinct, dissimilatory, Fe(III)-reducing bacterium was isolated from surface sediment of a hydrocarbon-contaminated ditch. The isolate, designated strain PAL-1, was an obligately anaerobic, non-fermentative, motile, gram-negative vibrio. PAL-1 grew in a defined medium with acetate as electron donor and ferric pyrophosphate, ferric oxyhydroxide, ferric citrate, Co(III)-EDTA, or elemental sulfur as sole electron acceptor. PAL-1 also used proline, hydrogen, lactate, propionate, succinate, fumarate, pyruvate, or yeast extract as electron donors for Fe(III) reduction. It is the first bacterium known to couple the oxidation of an amino acid to Fe(III) reduction. PAl-1 did not reduce oxygen, Mn(IV), U(VI), Cr(VI), nitrate, sulfate, sulfite, or thiosulfate with acetate as the electron donor. Cell suspensions of PAL-1 exhibited dithionite-reduced minus air-oxidized difference spectra that were characteristic of c-type cytochromes. Analysis of the 16S rRNA gene sequence of PAL-1 showed that the strain is not related to any of the described metal-reducing bacteria in the Proteobacteria and, together with Flexistipes sinusarabici, forms a separate line of descent within the Bacteria. Phenotypically and phylogenetically, strain PAl-1 differs from all other described bacteria, and represents the type strain of a new genus and species, Geovibrio ferrireducens. Received: 26 September 1995 / Accepted: 28 February 1996     

Identification of iron-reducing<Emphasis Type="Italic"> Thermus</Emphasis> strains as<Emphasis Type="Italic"> Thermus scotoductus</Emphasis>

Thermus strain SA-01, previously isolated from a deep (3.2 km) South African gold mine, is closely related to Thermus strains NMX2 A.1 and VI-7 (previously isolated from thermal springs in New Mexico, USA, and Portugal, respectively). Thermus strains SA-01 and NMX2 A.1 have also been shown previously to grow using nitrate, Fe(III), Mn(IV) or S^O as terminal electron acceptors and to be capable of reducing Cr(VI), U(VI), Co(III), and the quinone-containing compound anthraquinone-2,6-disulfonate. The objectives of this study were to determine the phylogenetic positions of the three known metal-reducing Thermus strains and to determine the phylogenetic significance of metal reduction within the genus Thermus. Phylogenetic analyses of 16S rDNA sequences, BOX PCR genomic fingerprinting, and DNA–DNA reassociation analyses indicated that these strains belong to the previously described genospecies T. scotoductus. The morphologies and lipid fatty acid profiles of these metal-reducing strains are consistent with their identification as T. scotoductus; however, the T. scotoductus strains tested in this study evinced a wide intraspecies variability in some other phenotypic traits, e.g., carbon substrate utilization and pigmentation. Iron reduction occurred in all strains of T. scotoductus tested except the mixotrophic, sulfur-oxidizing strain IT-7254. Thermus strains belonging to other species did not reduce Fe(III) to Fe(II) or reduced it only poorly.Communicated by J. Wiegel     

Characterisation of the dissimilatory reduction of Fe(III)-oxyhydroxide at the microbe-mineral interface: the application of STXM-XMCD

A combination of scanning transmission X‐ray microscopy and X‐ray magnetic circular dichroism was used to spatially resolve the distribution of different carbon and iron species associated with Shewanella oneidensis MR‐1 cells. S. oneidensis MR‐1 couples the reduction of Fe(III)‐oxyhydroxides to the oxidation of organic matter in order to conserve energy for growth. Several potential mechanisms may be used by S. oneidensis MR‐1 to facilitate Fe(III)‐reduction. These include direct contact between the cell and mineral surface, secretion of either exogenous electron shuttles or Fe‐chelating agents and the production of conductive ‘nanowires’. In this study, the protein/lipid signature of the bacterial cells was associated with areas of magnetite (Fe₃O₄), the product of dissimilatory Fe(III) reduction, which was oversaturated with Fe(II) (compared to stoichiometric magnetite). However, areas of the sample rich in polysaccharides, most likely associated with extracellular polymeric matrix and not in direct contact with the cell surface, were undersaturated with Fe(II), forming maghemite‐like (γ‐Fe₂O₃) phases compared to stoichiometric magnetite. The reduced form of magnetite will be much more effective in environmental remediation such as the immobilisation of toxic metals. These findings suggest a dominant role for surface contact‐mediated electron transfer in this study and also the inhomogeneity of magnetite species on the submicron scale present in microbial reactions. This study also illustrates the applicability of this new synchrotron‐based technique for high‐resolution characterisation of the microbe–mineral interface, which is pivotal in controlling the chemistry of the Earth’s critical zone.     

Glutamate dehydrogenase from the aerobic hyperthermophilic archaeon Aeropyrum pernix K1: enzymatic characterization, identification of the encoding gene, and phylogenetic implications

NADP-dependent glutamate dehydrogenase (l-glutamate: NADP oxidoreductase, deaminating, EC 1.4.1.4) from the aerobic hyperthermophilic archaeon Aeropyrum pernix K1 (JCM 9820) was purified to homogeneity for characterization. The enzyme retained its full activity on heating at 95°C for 30 min, and the maximum activity in l-glutamate deamination was obtained around 100°C. The enzyme showed a strict specificity for l-glutamate and NADP on oxidative deamination and for 2-oxoglutarate and NADPH on reductive amination. The K _m values for NADP, l-glutamate, NADPH, 2-oxoglutarate, and ammonia were 0.039, 3.3, 0.022, 1.7, and 83 mM, respectively. On the basis of the N-terminal amino acid sequence, the encoding gene was identified in the A. pernix K1 genome, cloned, and expressed in Escherichia coli. Analysis of the nucleotide sequence revealed an open reading frame of 1257 bp starting with a minor TTG codon and encoding a protein of 418 amino acids with a molecular weight of 46 170. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that the glutamate dehydrogenase from A. pernix K1 clustered with those from aerobic Sulfolobus solfataricus, Sulfolobus shibatae, and anaerobic Pyrobaculum islandicum in Crenarchaeota, and it separated from another cluster of the enzyme from Thermococcales in Euryarchaeota. The branching pattern of the enzymes from A. pernix K1, S. solfataricus, S. shibatae, and Pb. islandicum in the phylogenetic tree coincided with that of 16S rDNAs obtained from the same organisms. Received: April 24, 2000 / Accepted: August 10, 2000     

异化铁还原细菌LQ25还原重金属Cr (VI)的特性研究

[背景] 异化铁还原细菌能够在还原Fe （III）的同时将毒性较大的Cr （VI）还原成毒性较小的Cr （III）,解决铬污染的问题。[目的] 基于丁酸梭菌（Clostridium butyricum） LQ25异化铁还原过程制备生物磁铁矿,开展异化铁还原细菌还原Cr （VI）的特性研究。[方法] 构建以氢氧化铁为电子受体和葡萄糖为电子供体的异化铁培养体系。菌株LQ25培养结束时制备生物磁铁矿。设置不同初始Cr （VI）浓度（5、10、15、25和30 mg/L）,分别测定菌株LQ25对Cr （VI）还原效率以及生物磁铁矿对Cr （VI）的还原效率。[结果] 菌株LQ25在设置的Cr （VI）浓度范围内都能良好生长。当Cr （VI）浓度为15 mg/L时,在异化铁培养条件下,菌株LQ25对Cr （VI）的还原率为63.45%±5.13%,生物磁铁矿对Cr （VI）的还原率为87.73%±9.12%,相比菌株还原Cr （VI）的效率提高38%。pH变化能影响生物磁铁矿对Cr （VI）的还原率,当pH 2.0时,生物磁铁矿对Cr （VI）的还原率最高,几乎达到100%。电子显微镜观察发现生物磁铁矿表面有许多孔隙,X-射线衍射图谱显示生物磁铁矿中Fe （II）的存在形式是Fe （OH）₂。[结论] 基于异化铁还原细菌制备生物磁铁矿可用于还原Cr （VI）,这是一种有效去除Cr （VI）的途径。     

Influence of carbon sources and electron shuttles on ferric iron reduction by <Emphasis Type="Italic">Cellulomonas</Emphasis> sp. strain ES6

Microbially reduced iron minerals can reductively transform a variety of contaminants including heavy metals, radionuclides, chlorinated aliphatics, and nitroaromatics. A number of Cellulomonas spp. strains, including strain ES6, isolated from aquifer samples obtained at the U.S. Department of Energy’s Hanford site in Washington, have been shown to be capable of reducing Cr(VI), TNT, natural organic matter, and soluble ferric iron [Fe(III)]. This research investigated the ability of Cellulomonas sp. strain ES6 to reduce solid phase and dissolved Fe(III) utilizing different carbon sources and various electron shuttling compounds. Results suggest that Fe(III) reduction by and growth of strain ES6 was dependent upon the type of electron donor, the form of iron present, and the presence of synthetic or natural organic matter, such as anthraquinone-2,6-disulfonate (AQDS) or humic substances. This research suggests that Cellulomonas sp. strain ES6 could play a significant role in metal reduction in the Hanford subsurface and that the choice of carbon source and organic matter addition can allow for independent control of growth and iron reduction activity.