Leber＇s遗传性视神经病变和细胞总抗氧化能力关系的实验研究（简报）

除mtDNA突变以外,LHON的突变基因的杂合性、临床表现的不完全外显性和明显的性别偏向等问题使其发病机制尚不明确,本研究拟了解LHON与氧化应激的关系。探索其进一步可能的发病机制和治疗。抽取有mtDNA＊LHON G11778A突变的LHON患者7人、正常携带者10人及正常健康非母系家庭成员13人的外周血,用PHA（植物血凝素）作为细胞氧化应激的促发剂,运用化学发光法测定全血中氧自由基的变化。家系人群（包括病人和正常携带者）中全血氧自由基的变化在即时组要明显高于对照人群（P〈0．05）,而家系人群二组间、即时组及10min组间的变化差异不大（P〉0.05）。在外界氧化应激刺激下,LHON家系人群组织或细胞中自由基／抗氧化物间的平衡状态更容易被打破,提示氧化应激在其发病机制中起重要作用。     

Clinical, biochemical and molecular genetic features of Leber's hereditary optic neuropathy

Leber's hereditary optic neuropathy (LHON) has traditionally been considered a disease causing severe and permanent visual loss in young adult males. In nearly all families with LHON it is associated with one of three pathogenic mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) mutations, at bp 11778, 3460 or 14484. The availability of mtDNA confirmation of a diagnosis of LHON has demonstrated that LHON occurs with a wider range of age at onset and more commonly in females than previously recognised. In addition, analysis of patients grouped according to mtDNA mutation has demonstrated differences both in the clinical features of visual failure and in recurrence risks to relatives associated with each of the pathogenic mtDNA mutations. Whilst pathogenic mtDNA mutations are required for the development of LHON, other factors must be reponsible for the variable penetrance and male predominance of this condition. Available data on a number of hypotheses including the role of an additional X-linked visual loss susceptibility locus, impaired mitochondrial respiratory chain activity, mtDNA heteroplasmy, environmental factors and autoimmunity are discussed. Subacute visual failure is seen in association with all three pathogenic LHON mutations. However, the clinical and experimental data reviewed suggest differences in the phenotype associated with each of the three mutations which may reflect variation in the disease mechanisms resulting in this common end-point.     

Mutation detection in Leber's hereditary optic neuropathy by PCR with allele-specific priming

An assay was designed that allows detection, by PCR alone, of the mutation of base pair no. 11,778 in human mitochondrial DNA, causing Leber's hereditary optic neuropathy. This was obtained by using a 20-mer primer with the mutation-specific base in the 3'-position, plus a deliberately introduced C/C-mismatch at base no. four from the 3'-end. The latter mismatch was necessary, and sufficient, to prevent amplification of the normal allele.     

Leber's hereditary optic neuropathy: a model for mitochondrial neurodegenerative diseases.

A number of human diseases have been attributed to defects in oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS) resulting from mutations in the mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA). One such disease is Leber's hereditary optic neuropathy (LHON), a neurodegenerative disease of young adults that results in blindness due to atrophy of the optic nerve. The etiology of LHON is genetically heterogeneous and in some cases multifactorial. Eleven mtDNA mutations have been associated with LHON, all of which are missense mutations in the subunit genes for the subunits of the electron transport chain complexes I, III, and IV. Molecular, biochemical, and population genetic studies have categorized these mutations as high risk (class I), low risk (class II), or intermediate risk (class I/II). Class I mutations appear to be primary genetic causes of LHON, while class II mutations are frequently found associated with class I genotypes and may serve as exacerbating genetic factors. Different LHON pedigrees can harbor different combinations of class I, II, or I/II mtDNA mutations, as shown by the complete sequence analysis of the mtDNAs of four LHON probands. The various mtDNA genotypes included an isolated class I mutation, combined class I+II mutations, and combined class I/II+II mutations. The occurrence of such genotypes supports the hypothesis that LHON may result from the additive effects of various genetic and environmental insults to OXPHOS, each of which increases the probability of blindness.     

Antioxidant defences in cybrids harboring mtDNA mutations associated with Leber's hereditary optic neuropathy

Oxidative stress and imbalance between free radical generation and detoxification may play a pivotal role in the pathogenesis of Leber's hereditary optic neuropathy (LHON). Mitochondria, carrying the homoplasmic 11778/ND4, 3460/ND1 and 14484/ND6 mtDNA point mutations associated with LHON, were used to generate osteosarcoma-derived cybrids. Enhanced mitochondrial production of reactive oxygen species has recently been demonstrated in these cybrids [Beretta S, Mattavelli L, Sala G, Tremolizzo L, Schapira AHV, Martinuzzi A, Carelli V & Ferrarese C (2004) Brain 127, 2183-2192]. The aim of this study was to characterize the antioxidant defences of these LHON-affected cells. The activities of glutathione peroxidase (GPx), glutathione reductase (GR), superoxide dismutases (SOD) and catalase, and the amounts of glutathione (GSH) and oxidized glutathione (GSSG) were measured in cybrids cultured both in glucose-rich medium and galactose-rich medium. The latter is known to cause oxidative stress and to trigger apoptotic death in these cells. In spite of reduced SOD activities in all LHON cybrids, and of low GPx and GR activities in cells with the most severe 3460/ND1 and 11778/ND4 mutations, GSH and GSSG content were not significantly modified in LHON cybrids cultured in glucose medium. In contrast, in galactose, GSSG concentrations increased significantly in all cells, indicating severe oxidative stress, whereas GR and MnSOD activities further decreased in all LHON cybrids. These data suggest that, in cells carrying LHON mutations, there is a decrease in antioxidant defences, which is especially evident in cells with mutations associated with the most severe clinical phenotype. This is magnified by stressful conditions such as exposure to galactose.     

Erythromycin as a potential precipitating agent in the onset of Leber's hereditary optic neuropathy

A 23-years-old male entered a safety clinical trial for cetirizine (a selective histamine H(1)-receptor antagonist) in combination with the antibiotic erythromycin. Within a few weeks of finishing the trial, the patient reported bilateral vision loss with optic nerve atrophy. Genetic studies showed that he had a mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) mutation at position 11778 (within the gene for subunit 4 of NADH-coenzyme Q oxidoreductase), commonly associated with Leber's hereditary optic neuropathy. To test if erythromycin could worsen the mitochondrial respiratory chain defect associated with the 11778 mtDNA mutation, we transferred the patient's mtDNA to cultured mtDNA-less osteosarcoma cells. Erythromycin inhibited proliferation of the patient's transmitochondrial cybrids in conditions that required mitochondrial respiration for growth. We confirmed that erythromycin is a potent inhibitor of mitochondrial translation in these cells. Taken together, these results suggest that erythromycin may have hastened a bioenergetics crisis in the optic nerve of this patient. This association underscores the importance of being cautious with the use of drugs that interfere with cellular respiration in individuals with an underlying mitochondrial dysfunction.     

Emerging model systems and treatment approaches for Leber's hereditary optic neuropathy: Challenges and opportunities

Leber's hereditary optic neuropathy (LHON) is a mitochondrial disease mainly affecting retinal ganglion cells (RGCs). The pathogenesis of LHON remains ill-characterized due to a historic lack of effective disease models. Promising models have recently begun to emerge; however, less effective models remain popular. Many such models represent LHON using non-neuronal cells or assume that mutant mtDNA alone is sufficient to model the disease. This is problematic because context-specific factors play a significant role in LHON pathogenesis, as the mtDNA mutation itself is necessary but not sufficient to cause LHON. Effective models of LHON should be capable of demonstrating processes that distinguish healthy carrier cells from diseased cells. In light of these considerations, we review the pathophysiology of LHON as it relates to old, new and future models. We further discuss treatments for LHON and unanswered questions that might be explored using these new model systems.     

Cells bearing mutations causing Leber's hereditary optic neuropathy are sensitized to Fas-Induced apoptosis.

Three prevalent mitochondrial DNA pathogenic mutations at positions 11778, 3460, and 14484, which affect different subunits of Complex I, cause retinal ganglion cell death and optic nerve atrophy in Leber's hereditary optic neuropathy (LHON). The cell death is painless and without inflammation, consistent with an apoptotic mechanism. We have investigated the possibility that the LHON mutation confers a pro-apoptotic stimulus and have tested the sensitivity of osteosarcoma-derived cybrid cells carrying the most common and severe mutations (11778 and 3460) to cell death induced by Fas. We observed that LHON cybrids were sensitized to Fas-dependent death. Control cells that bear the same mitochondrial genetic background (the J haplogroup) without the pathogenic 11778 mutation are no more sensitive than other controls, indicating that increased Fas-dependent death in LHON cybrids was induced by the LHON pathogenic mutations. The type of death was apoptotic by several criteria, including induction by Fas, inhibition by the caspase inhibitor zVAD-fmk (zVal-Ala-Asp-fluoro-methyl ketone), activation of DEVDase activity (Asp-Glu-Val-Asp protease), specific cleavage of caspase-3, DNA fragmentation, and increased Annexin-V labeling. These data indicate that the most common and severe LHON pathogenic mutations 11778 and 3460 predispose cells to apoptosis, which may be relevant for the pathophysiology of cell death in LHON, and potential therapy.     

mtDNA haplogroup distribution in Chinese patients with Leber's hereditary optic neuropathy and G11778A mutation

Mitochondrial DNA background has been shown to be involved in the penetrance of Leber’s hereditary optic neuropathy (LHON) in western Eurasian populations. To analyze mtDNA haplogroup distribution pattern in Han Chinese patients with LHON and G11778A mutation, we analyzed the mtDNA haplogroups of 41 probands with LHON known to harbor G11778A mutation by sequencing the mtDNA control region hypervariable segments and some coding region polymorphisms. Each mtDNA was classified according to the available East Asian haplogroup system. The haplogroup distribution pattern of LHON sample was then compared to the reported Han Chinese samples. Haplogroups M7, D, B, and A were detected in 11 (26.8%), 10 (24.4%), 8 (19.5%), and 5 (12.2%) LHON families, respectively, and accounted for 82.9% of the total samples examined. For the remaining seven mtDNAs, six belonged to M8a, M10a, C, N9a, F1a, and R11, respectively, and one could only be assigned into macro-haplogroup M. The LHON sample was distinguished from other Han Chinese samples in the principal component map based on haplogroup distribution frequency. Our results show that matrilineal genetic components of Chinese LHON patients with G11778A are diverse and differ from related Han Chinese regional samples. mtDNA background might affect the expression of LHON and the G11778A mutation in Chinese population.     

Clinical evaluation and mitochondrial DNA sequence analysis in three Chinese families with Leber's hereditary optic neuropathy

We report here the clinical, genetic, and molecular characterization of three Chinese families (WZ4, WZ5, and WZ6) with Leber's hereditary optic neuropathy (LHON). Clinical and genetic evaluations revealed the variable severity and age-of-onset in visual impairment in these families. Penetrances of visual impairment in these Chinese families were 33.3%, 35.7%, and 35.5%, respectively, with an average 34.8%. Furthermore, the average age-at-onset in those Chinese families was 17, 20, and 18 years. In addition, the ratios between affected male and female matrilineal relatives in these Chinese families were 3:0, 1:1, and 1.2:1, respectively. Sequence analysis of the complete mitochondrial genomes in these pedigrees showed the distinct sets of mtDNA polymorphism, in addition to the identical G11778A mutation associated with LHON in many families. The fact that mtDNA of those pedigrees belonged to different haplogroups F1, D4, and M10 suggested that the G11778A mutation occurred sporadically and multiplied through evolution of the mtDNA in China. However, there was the absence of functionally significant mutations in tRNA and rRNAs or secondary LHON mutations in these Chinese families. The I187T mutation in the ND1, the S99A mutation in the A6, the V254I in CO3, and I58V in ND6 mutation, showing high evolutional conservation, may contribute to the phenotypic expression of the G11778A mutation in the WZ6 pedigree. By contrast, none of mtDNA variants are evolutionarily conserved and implicated to have significantly functional consequence in WZ4 and WZ5 pedigrees. Apparently, these variants do not have a potential modifying role in the development of visual impairment associated with G11778A mutation in those two families. Thus, nuclear modifier gene(s) or environmental factor(s) seem to account for the penetrance and expressivity of LHON in these three Chinese families carrying the G11778A mutation.     

Bioenergetics shapes cellular death pathways in Leber's hereditary optic neuropathy: a model of mitochondrial neurodegeneration

Leber's hereditary optic neuropathy (LHON) was the first maternally inherited disease to be associated with point mutations in mitochondrial DNA and is now considered the most prevalent mitochondrial disorder. The pathology is characterized by selective loss of ganglion cells in the retina leading to central vision loss and optic atrophy, prevalently in young males. The pathogenic mtDNA point mutations for LHON affect complex I with the double effect of lowering the ATP synthesis driven by complex I substrates and increasing oxidative stress chronically. In this review, we first consider the biochemical changes associated with the proton-translocating NADH-quinone oxidoreductase of mitochondria in cybrid cells carrying the most common LHON mutations. However, the LHON cybrid bioenergetic dysfunction is essentially compensated under normal conditions, i.e. in glucose medium, but is unrevealed by stressful conditions such as growing cybrids in glucose free/galactose medium, which forces cells to rely only on respiratory chain for ATP synthesis. In fact, the second part of this review deals with the investigation of LHON cybrid death pathway in galactose medium. The parallel marked changes in antioxidant enzymes, during the time-course of galactose experiments, also reveal a relevant role played by oxidative stress. The LHON cybrid model sheds light on the complex interplay amongst the different levels of biochemical consequences deriving from complex I mutations in determining neurodegeneration in LHON, and suggests an unsuspected role of bioenergetics in shaping cell death pathways.     

Rapid shift in genotype of human mitochondrial DNA in a family with Leber's hereditary optic neuropathy

Mitochondrial DNA isolated from white blood cells was investigated in families suffering from Leber's hereditary optic neuropathy. A recently described mutation at nucleotide position 11778 was present in 5 out of 12 families and heteroplasmic mitochondrial DNA was observed in 2 of these 5 families. A rapid shift in genotype was found in one of the families with heteroplasmy: the grandmother had 60 percent mitochondrial DNA mutated at nucleotide position 11778, the mother 55 percent, and the two sons at least 95 percent. These data indicate that the number of mitochondrial DNA molecules transmitted to the progeny passes a developmental bottleneck, as previously proposed to occur in bovine oogenesis.     

Oxidative phosphorylation differences between mitochondrial DNA haplogroups modify the risk of Leber's hereditary optic neuropathy

Leber's hereditary optic neuropathy is a maternally inherited optic atrophy caused by mitochondrial DNA point mutations. Previous epidemiological studies have shown that individuals from mitochondrial genetic backgrounds (haplogroups) J/Uk and H have a higher and a lower risk, respectively, of suffering this disorder. To analyze the bases of these associations at cellular and molecular levels, functional studies with cybrids provide high quality evidence. Cybrids from haplogroup J contain less mitochondrial deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA) and synthesize a smaller amount of mitochondrial DNA-encoded polypeptides than those from haplogroup H. Haplogroup J cybrids also display lower oxygen consumption, mitochondrial inner membrane potential and total adenosine-5'-triphosphate (ATP) levels. Moreover, mitochondrial DNA levels correlate with many parameters of the oxidative phosphorylation system. These results suggest that the mitochondrial DNA amount determines oxidative phosphorylation capacity and, along with other recently published observations, support the possibility that mitochondrial DNA levels may be responsible for the bias of the disorder toward males, for the incomplete penetrance of mutations causing Leber's hereditary optic neuropathy and for the association of the disease with particular mitochondrial DNA haplogroups.     

Respiratory function in cybrid cell lines carrying European mtDNA haplogroups: implications for Leber's hereditary optic neuropathy

The possibility that some combinations of mtDNA polymorphisms, previously associated with Leber's hereditary optic neuropathy (LHON), may affect mitochondrial respiratory function was tested in osteosarcoma-derived transmitochondrial cytoplasmic hybrids (cybrids). In this cellular system, in the presence of the same nuclear background, different exogenous mtDNAs are used to repopulate a parental cell line previously devoid of its original mtDNA. No detectable differences in multiple parameters exploring respiratory function were observed when mtDNAs belonging to European haplogroups X, H, T and J were used. Different possible explanations for the previously established association between haplogroup J and LHON 11778/ND4 and 14484/ND6 pathogenic mutations are discussed, including the unconventional proposal that mtDNA haplogroup J may exert a protective rather than detrimental effect.     

Leber's hereditary optic neuropathy: no significant evidence for primary or secondary pathogenicity of the 15257 mutation

Leber's hereditary optic neuropathy (LHON) is a maternally inherited disease of the optic nerves associated with various mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) mutations. Four of these mutations, at nucleotide positions (np) 3460, 11778, 14484 and 15257, have been postulated to be of primary pathogenetical importance. Previously, we described the molecular and clinical findings in patients with the 11778 and 14484 mutations. Here we describe the molecular and clinical findings of patients in eight pedigrees with the 3460 mutation and in three pedigrees with the 15 257 mutation. In all three 15257 positive pedigrees the 3460, the 11778 or the 14484 mutation was also found. The first combination has not been reported before. We compared the clinical findings in these pedigrees with those of the 3460, 11778 and 14484 positive pedigrees that lack the 15257 mutation. No significant differences were found with respect to the age of onset, visual outcome or the probability of developing LHON. We conclude that there is no evidence that the 15257 mutation, which has been reported in normal controls, has primary causal significance, because it may coincide with the 3460, 11778 and 14484 mutations. We presume that the 15257 mutation has no secondary pathogenic importance, since it has no clear contribution to the degree or the probability of phenotypic expression.     

Mitochondrial DNA polymorphism in Finnish families with Leber's hereditary optic neuroretinopathy

Summary Leukocyte mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) from 17 Finnish families iwth Leber's hereditary optic neuroretinopathy and 70 maternally unrelated controls as well as skeletal muscle mtDNA from four of the Leber families and three controls was analyzed with 30 restriction enzymes. By this means, over 10% of the nucleotides of mtDNA were screened. No major deletion or insertion was found in any of the mtDNAs studied. The restriction fragment patterns of mtDNA showed no evidence of mtDNA heteroplasmy (mixture of different mtDNA types) in either blood or muscle cells. In all, 24 mtDNA types were observed in the material. In the maternal lines of Leber families, 11 mtDNA types were found, indicating no recent common maternal ancestor for the Finnish Leber families. In spite of several previously unknown polymorphisms, no mutation of mtDNA could be found exclusively in families with Leber's disease. However, a couple of mutations leading to amino acid replacements of mitochondrially encoded proteins were observed in certain Leber families only. These mutations have occurred in genes coding for subunits of NADH dehydrogenase, suggesting that a defect of the respiratory chain complex I may cause Leber's disease.     

Leber's hereditary optic neuropathy is associated with the mitochondrial ND4 G11696A mutation in five Chinese families

We report here the clinical, genetic, and molecular characterization of five Chinese families with Leber's hereditary optic neuropathy (LHON). Clinical and genetic evaluations revealed the variable severity and age-of-onset in visual impairment in these families. Strikingly, there were extremely low penetrances of visual impairment in these Chinese families. Sequence analysis of the complete mitochondrial genomes in these pedigrees showed the distinct sets of mtDNA polymorphism, in addition to the identical ND4 G11696A mutation associated with LHON. Indeed, this mutation is present in homoplasmy only in the maternal lineage of those pedigrees but not other members of these families. In fact, the occurrence of the G11696A mutation in these several genetically unrelated subjects affected by visual impairment strongly indicates that this mutation is involved in the pathogenesis of visual impairment. Furthermore, the N405D in the ND5 and G5820A in the tRNA(Cys), showing high evolutional conservation, may contribute to the phenotypic expression of G11696A mutation in the WZ10 pedigree. However, there was the absence of functionally significant mtDNA mutations in other four Chinese pedigrees carrying the G11696A mutation. Therefore, nuclear modifier gene(s) or environmental factor(s) may play a role in the phenotypic expression of the LHON-associated G11696A mutation in these Chinese pedigrees.