Daytime birth of a baby crested black macaque (Macaca nigra) in the wild

In mammals, which give birth to more or less dependent offspring, parturition usually takes place during the animals' resting period and in a secure environment. We report here the first direct and documented observation of a daytime birth of a wild baby crested black macaque, Macaca nigra, in the Tangkoko Batuangus Nature Reserve, North Sulawesi, Indonesia. We further consider the parturition time as a female reproductive strategy in a broader evolutionary framework.     

Immunohistochemical and morphological features of a small bowel leiomyoma in a black crested macaque (Macaca nigra)

ABSTRACT: BACKGROUND: Spontaneous gastrointestinal neoplasms in non-human primates are commonly seen in aged individuals. Due to genetic similarities between human and non-human primates, scientists have shown increasing interest in terms of comparative oncology studies. CASE PRESENTATION: The present study is related to a case of an intestinal leiomyoma in a black crested macaque (Macaca nigra), kept on captivity by Matecana Zoo, Pereira City, Colombia. The animal had abdominal distension, anorexia, vomiting, diarrhea and behavioral changes. Clinical examination showed an increased volume in the upper right abdominal quadrant caused by a neoplastic mass. The patient died during the surgical procedure. Necropsy revealed several small nodules in the peritoneum with adhesion to different portions of the small and large intestines, liver, stomach and diaphragm. Tissue samples were collected, routinely processed and stained by H&E. Microscopic examination revealed a mesenchymal tumor limited to tunica muscularis, resembling normal smooth muscle cells. Neoplastic cells were positive for alpha-smooth muscle actin and vimentin, and negative for cytokeratin AE1/AE3 by immunohistochemistry. Those morphological and immunohistochemical findings allowed to diagnose the intestinal leiomyoma referred above. CONCLUSION: Neoplastic diseases in primates have multifaceted causes. Their manifestations are understudied, leading to a greater difficulty in detection and measurement of the real impact provides by this disease.     

Immunohistochemical and morphological features of a small bowel leiomyoma in a black crested macaque (Macaca nigra)

Background

Since 2008, a progressive pneumonia has become prevalent in broilers and laying hens. This disease occurrs the first day after hatching and lasts more than 30?days, resulting in approximately 70% morbidity and 30% mortality in broilers. The objective of this study was to isolate and identify the pathogens that are responsible for the progressive pneumonia and establish an animal model for drug screening.

Results

193 serum samples were collected from 8 intensive farms from 5 provinces in China and analysed in the current research. Our clinical survey showed that 65.2% to 100% of breeding broilers, breeding layers, broilers and laying hens were seropositive for ORT antibodies. From 8 intensive farms, six ORT isolates were identified by PCR and biochemical assays, and two H9N2 viruses were isolated. Newcastle Disease Virus (NDV) and Infectious BronchitisVirus (IBV) were excluded. Typical pneumonia and airsacculitis were observed both in broilers inoculated intraperitoneally with an ORT isolate alone and in those co-infected with ORT and H9N2 virus isolates. Specifically, the survival rate was 30%, 20%, 70%, 50% and 90% in birds inoculated with ORT+H9N2 virus, ORT followed by H9N2 virus, H9N2 virus followed by ORT, and ORT or H9N2 virus alone, respectively.

Conclusions

The results of this study suggest that ORT infections of domestic poultry have been occurring frequently in China. ORT infection can induce higher economic losses and mortality if H9N2 AIV is also present. Although the isolation of ORT and H9N2 virus has been reported previously, there have been no reported co-infections of poultry with these two pathogens. This is the first report of co-infection of broilers with ORT and H9N2 virus, and this co-infection is probably associated with the outbreak of broiler airsacculitis in China, which has caused extensive economic losses.     

Population densities of Sulawesi crested black macaques (Macaca nigra) on Bacan and Sulawesi,Indonesia: Effects of habitat disturbance and hunting

Population surveys of Sulawesi crested black macaques (Macaca nigra) were conducted on the Indonesian islands of Sulawesi and Bacan in 1992–1994 to assess the status of natural populations and determine habitat and anthropogenic factors affecting their population densities. We surveyed five sites for primates, including undisturbed and disturbed habitats. Data were collected on habitat structure and composition at two undisturbed and one disturbed forest site in which the primates were surveyed. The highest density of macaques was found in primary forest at Gunung Sibela Nature Reserve on Bacan (170.3 individuals/km²). Population density in logged forest on Bacan was high but significantly less than primary forest (133.4 individuals/km²). The high density of crested black macaques in primary forest on Bacan is best explained by the high carrying capacity found in primary forest. The lower food quantity and quality of food resources found in logged forest correlated with lower primate densities compared to primary forest. However, the large population of macaques in logged forest demonstrates the conservation value of such forest. Densities on Sulawesi at Tangkoko-Batuangas-DuaSudara Nature Reserve (TBDS) showed a continuing decline since earlier surveys. Primate densities were highest near the protected center of Tangkoko Reserve (66.7 individuals/km²). The peripheral areas of Batuangas and DuaSudara, even though adjacent and continuous, showed lower population densities of 46.4 and 23.5 individuals/km², respectively. The best explanation for the continued decline of Macaca nigra populations at TBDS is hunting. Unless conservation measures are implemented immediately, M. nigra on Sulawesi risks extinction in the near future. Am. J. Primatol. 44:89–106, 1998. © 1998 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Effects of physical and chemical restraint on intravenous glucose tolerance test in crested black macaques (Macaca nigra)

The effects of physical and chemical restraint on glucose clearance and insulin secretion were evaluated during intravenous glucose tolerance testing in Macaca nigra. Conscious monkeys placed in plexiglas cylindrical restraining devices (CRD) appeared relaxed, but glucose clearance and insulin secretion were impaired. A combination of midazolam with ketamine, compared to ketamine alone, did not cause detectable changes in the intravenous glucose tolerance tests; midazolam also reduced adverse reactions to ketamine and extended the duration of anesthesia. The cylindrical restraining device can be convenient for examining monkeys, but it is limited by its adverse affects on metabolic and hormonal measurements in intravenous glucose-tolerance tests. Chemical restraint using ketamine with midazolam was more effective than ketamine alone.     

In vitro fertilization in the pigtailed macaque (Macaca nemestrina)

The objective of this study was to investigate the possibility of collecting oocytes and semen from pigtailed macaques (Macaca nemestrina) and to establish a protocol for the production of viable embryos that would be suitable for transfer into surrogate females. A total of 82 oocytes were collected from a total of four females (on 2 d with two females each). Semen was collected from the same male on both occasions with respective ejaculate volumes of 0.55 and 0.1 mL containing 2 x 10(9) and 6.6 x 10(8)sperm/mL. Following insemination and after 48 h in culture, 42 (51.2%) of the oocytes had cleaved. Of these, 21 were selected based on developmental stage and their morphology and cryopreserved. The remainder was kept in culture for an additional 5 d, at which time three had reached the expanded blastocyst stage. A total of five transfers were performed with frozen-thawed embryos; two of these resulted in pregnancies and the birth of infants. The results of this study demonstrated that oocytes can be retrieved from pigtailed macaques and that such oocytes can be inseminated and cultured in vitro to the blastocyst stage and give rise to viable offspring after transfer into surrogate females.     

Behavior, Diet, and Movements of the Sulawesi Crested Black Macaque (Macaca nigra)

We present the first field study of activity budgets, diet and ranging patterns of the Sulawesi crested black macaque, Macaca nigra, one of seven macaque species endemic to Sulawesi, Indonesia. We studied three crested macaque groups, ranging in size from 50 to 97 individuals, for 18 months in the Tangkoko-DuaSudara Nature Reserve, North Sulawesi. They spent 59% of the day moving and procuring food, especially fruits, and 41% of the day resting and socializing. Their diet is composed of more than 145 species of fruit (66% of observed feeding bouts), vegetative material (2.5%), invertebrates (31.5%), and occasional vertebrate prey. Group differences were more pronounced than seasonal or diurnal differences. Specifically, the largest group moved farther during the day, moved at a faster and more uniform rate, ate less fruit, rested more, and socialized less than the smaller groups did. The largest group had the largest home range, but it included less primary forest and more disturbed habitat than the ranges of smaller groups. There are individual differences in activity budgets of adult males and females in time spent moving, resting, feeding, and socializing that may reflect differences in reproductive strategies of males versus females. The behavior of large juveniles is more similar to that of adults than to that of small juveniles. Daily movements and use of home range are correlated with diet. Macaques moved shorter distances as the proportion of time spent feeding on fruit increased, and the top four dietary items accounted for most of the variance in entry into hectare blocks of home range.     

Control of Shigella flexneri in Celebes black macaques (Macaca nigra)

Stool specimens collected systematically from a group of Celebes black macaques (Macaca nigra) with a high incidence of diarrhea were examined microbiologically. Numerous isolates of Shigella flexneri, Campylobacter jejuni and pathogenic Escherichia coli were recovered. Previous parasitology reports had revealed that the majority of the animals had Balantidium coli. Subsequently, the group was treated with trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole, erythromycin and tetracycline. After treatment, Shigella flexneri was not detected in the stool of any animal for 1 year, and the clinical condition of the group was improved. Reduced recovery rates were obtained with other enteric pathogens.     

Activity patterns in a captive group of Celebes black apes (Macaca nigra)

Both time of day and weather significantly influenced the behavioral activity profile of a captive group of Celebes black apes. There were significant differences when their activity profile was compared to those of stumptail macaques, pigtail macaques, sooty mangabeys and geladas observed under similar conditions. There were, nonetheless several remarkable consistencies, especially among taxonomically related forms. Significant sex differences were also noted for grooming, social interaction rates, self-directed activity, agonistic and sexual behavior. Scores were consistent with data on a second group of black apes and previously reported unusual behavioral categories were confirmed.     

Variability of tail length in hybrids of the Japanese macaque (Macaca fuscata) and the Taiwanese macaque (Macaca cyclopis)

In primates, tail length is subject to wide variation, and the tail may even be absent. Tail length varies greatly between each species group of the genus Macaca, which is explained by climatic factors and/or phylogeographic history. Here, tail length variability was studied in hybrids of the Japanese (M. fuscata) and Taiwanese (Macaca cyclopis) macaque, with various degrees of hybridization being evaluated through autosomal allele typing. Relative tail length (percent of crown–rump length) correlated well with the number of caudal vertebrae. Length profiles of caudal vertebrae of hybrids and parent species revealed a common pattern: the length of several proximal-most vertebrae do not differ greatly; then from the third or fourth vertebra, the length rapidly increases and peaks at around the fifth to seventh vertebra; then the length plateaus for several vertebrae and finally shows a gentle decrease. As the number of caudal vertebrae and relative tail length increase, peak vertebral length and lengths of proximal vertebrae also increase, except that of the first vertebra, which only shows a slight increase. Peak vertebral length and the number of caudal vertebrae explained 92?% of the variance in the relative tail length of hybrids. Relative tail length correlated considerably well with the degree of hybridization, with no significant deviation from the regression line being observed. Thus, neither significant heterosis nor hybrid depression occurred.     

Two-nucleotide codon change in a hemoglobin polymorphism of the Celebes black ape (Macaca nigra)

A hemoglobin polymorphism involving variant -chains was demonstrated in the Celebes black ape, Macaca nigra. Fingerprinting and amino acid analysis of the tryptic peptides from the two chain types have shown that they differ by a single amino acid substitution, between lysine and aspartic acid, which requires a two-nucleotide change in the corresponding codon. Another substitution in the same codon is found as a species difference between the black ape -chain and that of other macaques.     

Cryopreservation of rhesus macaque (Macaca mulatta) spermatozoa and their functional assessment by in vitro fertilization

Although spermatozoa from several species of nonhuman primates have been cryopreserved, there has been no report of success with rhesus macaque spermatozoa as judged by functional assays. Two Tris--egg yolk freezing media, TEST and TTE, which have been successfully used for cynomolgus macaque (Macaca fascicularis) spermatozoa, were compared for cryopreservation of spermatozoa from four rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta). The postthaw motility (percentage and duration) of spermatozoa cryopreserved in TTE was much higher than that for spermatozoa cryopreserved in TEST. The function of sperm cryopreserved in TTE was evaluated by in vitro fertilization of oocytes collected from gonadotropin-stimulated prepubertal rhesus macaques. Of the inseminated oocytes, 82 +/- 13% were fertilized and 63 +/- 22 and 39 +/- 21% of the resulting zygotes developed into morulae and blastocysts, respectively. These results indicate that rhesus macaque spermatozoa can be effectively cryopreserved in TTE medium. This finding will facilitate the application of in vivo and in vitro assisted reproductive technologies in this species.     

Birth of rhesus macaque (Macaca mulatta) infants after in vitro fertilization and gestation in female rhesus or pigtailed (Macaca nemestrina) macaques

A study was conducted to assess the possibility of using pigtailed macaques (Macaca nemestrina) as recipients for rhesus macaque (Macaca mulatta) embryos. A total of 250 oocytes were collected from 11 rhesus monkeys during 12 follicular aspirations. We performed 15 embryo transfers with two embryos each into rhesus recipients, which resulted in eight pregnancies, of which two were lost during the second trimester. Among the remaining six pregnant rhesus macaques, two were carrying twins, resulting in the birth of eight infants. Twelve transfers of rhesus embryos into pigtailed macaques resulted in one pregnancy and the birth of one infant. Fetal growth and development were monitored by monthly ultrasound examinations, during which biparietal measurements were taken and compared with those derived from 22 pregnant control monkeys. In vitro fertilization-derived singletons tended to develop faster than did twins and naturally conceived control singletons during the initial months of pregnancy and weighed more at birth than did twins. There were pronounced morphologic changes in the placenta of the rhesus that developed in the female pigtailed macaque. These included an irregular shape, elevated placenta-to-birth-weight ratio, and an abnormal length and diameter of the umbilical cord. Histologic analyses of the rhesus-pigtailed placenta showed evidence of maternal-placental floor infarction and thrombosis of the spiral artery with resulting infarction of the villi. These results demonstrate that pigtailed macaques can carry rhesus fetuses to term, but further studies are necessary to determine the cause of the decreased pregnancy rates and observed placental abnormalities.     

Sweating in the Japanese macaque (Macaca fuscata)

The sweating rates on the palms and chests of three adult male Japanese macaques were measured by the CaCl₂ method at temperatures of 20–40°C. Rectal and skin temperatures on the palms and chests were also measured by means of copper-constantan thermocouples every minute. As ambient temperature was raised from 20°C to 40°C over a one-hour period, the sweating rates on the palms gradually increased and reached a certain plateau level in 30 to 40 minutes, but the sweating rates on the chests, on the other hand, were very low. A good correlation existed between the skin temperatures and the sweating rates on the palms as well as the skin temperatures and the sweating rates on the chests.     

Assessing natural introgression in 2 biomedical model species, the rhesus macaque (Macaca mulatta) and the long-tailed macaque (Macaca fascicularis)

Rhesus macaque (Macaca mulatta) and long-tailed macaque (Macaca fascicularis) are the 2 most commonly used primate model species in biomedical sciences. Although morphological studies have revealed a weak hybridization at the interspecific contact zone, in the north of Indochina, a molecular study has suggested an ancient introgression from rhesus to long-tailed macaque into the Indo-Chinese peninsula. However, the gene flow between these 2 taxa has never been quantified using genetic data and theoretical models. In this study, we have examined genetic variation within and between the parapatric Chinese rhesus macaque and Indo-Chinese long-tailed macaque populations, using 13 autosomal, 5 sex-linked microsatellite loci and mitochondrial DNA sequence data. From these data, we assessed genetic structure and estimated gene flow using a Bayesian clustering approach and the "Isolation with Migration" model. Our results reveal a weak interspecific genetic differentiation at both autosomal and sex-linked loci, suggesting large population sizes and/or gene flow between populations. According to the Bayesian clustering, Chinese rhesus macaque is a highly homogeneous gene pool that contributes strongly to the current Indo-Chinese long-tailed macaque genetic makeup, whether or not current admixture is assumed. Coalescent simulations, which integrated the characteristics of the loci, pointed out 1) a higher effective population size in rhesus macaque, 2) no mitochondrial gene flow, and 3) unilateral and male-mediated nuclear gene flow of approximately 10 migrants per generation from rhesus to long-tailed macaque. These patterns of genetic structure and gene flow suggest extensive ancient introgression from Chinese rhesus macaque into the Indo-Chinese long-tailed macaque population.     

Effect of cetrorelix on sperm morphology during migration through the epididymis in the cynomolgus macaque (Macaca fascicularis)

The importance of the cynomolgus monkey as a model for human reproductive medicine prompted this examination of epididymal sperm morphology. Computer-aided sperm morphological analysis was used for the first time to provide morphometric data on sperm heads as they traversed the epididymal duct of Macaca fascicularis. The duct was divided into six regions, starting close to the testis (proximal) and ending close to the vas deferens (distal). To determine the androgen-dependence of the changes, one group of animals received a GnRH-antagonist (Cetrorelix, Asta Medica, Frankfurt, Germany) to induce testicular regression and lower epididymal androgens, while a control group received only vehicle. Epididymides were removed 16 and 25 days after treatment, and sperm heads were analysed by a computer-assisted morphometric analyser. Cluster analysis revealed swollen sperm head cells in proximal regions 1 and 2 of the epididymis, but fewer such forms distally. Normal head shapes became the majority in region 4 and these underwent a gradual but statistically significant decrease in size (area, perimeter, length, width) and shape as they reached the distal regions. In the animals given Cetrorelix, sperm with swollen heads were found more distally than in the controls, although they were also never present in the distal cauda (region 6). Normal heads still became predominant in region 4 after 16 days treatment, and in region 6 after 25 days. The normal forms in the cauda epididymidis of treated animals were significantly larger than cells from control animals. We conclude that epididymal sperm maturation in the monkey is characterised by both a loss of sensitivity to distortion on air-drying, and by a decrease in sperm head size. The former, but not the latter, is attained by sperm in androgen-deficient epididymides from GnRH-antagonist-treated monkeys.     

Viral infection of cynomolgus macaque (Macaca irus)

The antiviral antibody against 14 viruses was studied with sera from 178 cynomolgus macaques. The viruses were employed, taking into consideration the probability of natural infection with the viruses in the habitats of the macaques and by contact with humans.Results on influenza and group B arboviruses were significant. 1) No hemagglutination inhibition (HI) antibody against influenza A2 (Adachi) was found but antibody against influenza B (Setagaya) was found in about 50% of the sera tested every year. 2) The results of the HI test with group B arboviruses indicated that macaques were infected with dengue type 2 and Japanese encephalitis viruses.Macaques also showed a high proportion of sero-positive cases and high antibody titers against herpes simplex, measles, and SV5 viruses.Antibody against at least one of the viruses tested was present in 170 of the 178 sera tested.     

Relationship of mitogen reactivity to type D retrovirus infection in Celebes black macaques (Macaca nigra)

The Celebes black macaque (Macaca nigra) colony at the Oregon Regional Primate Research Center has a high incidence of an immunodeficiency syndrome characterized by recurrent diarrhea and the development of retroperitoneal fibromatosis (RF). We have examined the relationship of type D viral infection to the immunodeficiency syndrome by surveying the colony for viral infection and for mitogen reactivity. Type D virus-positive monkeys (28% of the colony) have a higher prevalence of diarrhea, splenomegaly, lymphadenopathy and weight loss than do virus-negative monkeys, and RF has been found to occur only in virus-positive animals. Comparison of the concanavalin A (con-A) and phytohemagglutinin reactivities of the virus-positive and -negative populations has revealed no significant difference. However, within the virus-positive population, those with RF have reduced con-A reactivity and there are both high and low mitogen responders in the groups lacking RF. Thirty-two percent of the virus-positive monkeys are free of clinical symptoms, 40% have clinical symptoms but no RF, and 27% have clinical symptoms and RF. Five of the six monkeys with RF are older than the RF-free monkeys but monkeys are susceptible to type D retrovirus infection regardless of age or sex. The progressive nature of this immunodeficiency syndrome, its broad age range, and the probability that the etiological agent is also a type D retrovirus and the similarity of RF to Kaposi's sarcoma make this a potentially useful model for human AIDS.