Observation of a birth among wild toque macaques (Macaca sinica)

Most toque macaques give birth to their infants during the night when resting arboreally. Here we report on a birth that occurred in daytime (at 0916 hr) and on the ground. The mother was 7.6 years old; the birth was her second. Prepartum behaviors included lordosis, arching of the back, stretching, squatting, rolling on the ground, and anogenital self-examination. During the birth the female was isolated about 100 m from the rest of her group. The mother stood bipedally during parturition and assisted delivery with her hands. The infant was born within 2 min after first appearing at the vulva. It immediately clung to the mother’s leg and vocalized. The mother licked the infant and oriented it toward her ventrum. She resumed foraging behavior within 20 min after parturition. The infant nursed for the first time 2.25 hr after being born. The mother ate part of the placenta, but the alpha female of the group usurped and also ate a portion of it. Curious group members sniffed and looked at the infant but did not touch it.     

Evidence that Mating Plug is Related to Null Female Mating Activity in the Scorpion Vaejovis punctatus

We document a case in which the mating plug of the scorpion Vaejovis punctatus seems correlated with a reduction in female sexual receptivity. We used two morphological and behavioral analyses. The mating plug was dissected and described from both males and females: it bears a set of spines and two enlarged terminations which possibly allow anchoring to the female inside and impede removal. Behavioral observations support this view: after sperm transfer ended, the female tried to remove the plug by rubbing the ventral side of her body using her second and third pair of legs. This pattern was also performed after mate separation. All females seemed unable to displace the plug and rejected male mating attempts. The mating plug suffered a progressive degradation into the female. This degradation was completed 2 or 3 mo prior to parturition, so that the plug did not seem a barrier for the emergence of embryos. Furthermore, females bearing mating plugs in different degradation stages did not accept another mating during the reproductive season, and sexual acceptance was reinitiated only after parturition. The mating plug therefore seems to correlate with a lost in mating activity. The comparison of this structure with that of other scorpion species allows us to hypothesize a sexual coevolutionary scenario in which the effectiveness of the plug to inhibit female remating may lie at the center of such interaction.     

A method for encouraging maternal care in the giant panda

We developed a method to facilitate maternal care in a giant panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca) female that rejected her cub immediately after parturition. After removal of the cub, the female was systematically exposed to a regime of infant‐related stimuli, including a surrogate toy panda, accompanied by infant vocalizations and urine, and the mother's own milk. The female displayed several measures of maternal behavior toward the surrogate, for example, spending 61% of her time holding the surrogate in positions typical for the species. There was some evidence that maternal proficiency increased across the 4 weeks of the experiment. Results also indicate that the female was responsive to both infant vocalizations and urine, but not milk. After a transitional period in which we assisted the female in her efforts to nurse and groom the infant, all maternal care‐giving responsibilities were returned to the mother. Over the next 3 months, the pattern of maternal care followed the species‐typical course of declining mother‐infant contact, grooming, overall interaction time, and responsiveness to the cub's vocalizations. This study marks the first successful reunification of a giant panda mother with an infant separated at birth and, it is hoped, will serve as a model for similar efforts elsewhere. Zoo Biol 19:53–63, 2000. © 2000 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

The birth of a wild mountain gorilla (Gorilla gorilla beringei)

The live birth of a wild mountain gorilla is described. Details of the birth process are given along with the mother’s periparturitional behaviour and the responses of others to the birth. The mother, a multiparous female, gave no observable indication that birth was imminent, and delivered her infant quickly and easily. During parturition, a subadult male showed interest in the proceedings. Following delivery, several animals approached the mother, who then left the birth site. The mother cleaned her infant and by two hours postpartum had established ventro-ventral contact and, possibly, nursing. These data are related to relevant observations from the literature and unpublished data on other animals from this study.     

Metabolic cost of first reproduction in young female European roe deerCapreolus capreolus

In female roe deerCapreolus capreolus (Linnaeus, 1758), like in several deer species, first reproduction occurs before they have reached their full body size. This study quantifies, in young females, the energetic costs induced by the contemporaneously occurring events: growth and first reproduction. Resting metabolic rate and body mass were measured in young primiparous females from first mating to 4 months after parturition, and compared to values measured in fully-grown adult multiparous females. Throughout the 10-month period from mating to fawning, body mass increased in yearlings. Prior to the blastocyst implantation (month −5 before parturition) young females were lighter than adult females whereas after parturition they had the same body mass. Our results suggest that body growth was reinitiated during pregnancy in primiparous females. From mating to fawning, except in the first part of pregnancy, mass-specific metabolism was higher in primiparous females than in multiparous individuals indicating the occurrence of an additional cost due to growth in young females. The depressed level observed at the beginning of gestation could allow the resumption of growth at lower cost. Thus, the allocation of resources to both reproduction and growth was not detrimental to first reproduction in young female roe deer under experimental conditions withad lib feeding.     

A test of the randomness of paternity of members of maternal sibships in six captive groups of rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta)

Results of previous studies have shown that in captive groups of rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatto)fathers associate more frequently with their own offspring than with those of other males and that mothers are most permissive of physical contact between their own infant and a juvenile when that juvenile shares the same father with her infant. These two observations suggest that the identity of offspring born in captive groups of rhesus monkeys is recognized by at least some adult members of the group. Consistent patterns of mating among mating seasons might explain this apparent recognition of offsprings’ paternity. Fathers, for example, might regularly associate with young who maintain a close relationship with females with whom they have previously mated, and mothers might selectively permit juveniles who maintain a close relationship with males with whom they have previously mated to associate with their infants. This hypothesis is tested in this paper by comparing the observed distribution of 70 maternal sibships, members of which were fathered by the same or by different adult males over a 4-year period in six captive groups of rhesus monkeys, with that distribution expected based on random mating from season to season. Seasonal mating patterns were found to be random. Preparations are now underway to test this hypothesis in several free-ranging groups.     

TIMING OF PARTURITION AS A MATERNAL CARE TACTIC IN AN ALPINE LIZARD SPECIES

Lack of ability to buffer postparturient offspring mortality risks may put a female under strong selection to time the birth of her young with benign environmental conditions. We provide support for timing of parturition as an adaptation in Tasmanian snow skinks (Niveoscincus) by demonstration of (1) ongoing selection against poorly timed parturitions, (2) retention of full-term young through episodes of unfavorable conditions, and (3) phylogenetic shifts from autumn to spring parturition in taxa where costs of autumn parturition are expected to be relatively higher.     

Social stimulation and the resumption of copulation in Rhesus (Macaca mulatto) and stumptail (Macaca arctoides) Macaques

Copulatory data derived from observations of social groups of rhesus and stumptail macaques were analyzed to test the hypothesis that pairs of animals would resume copulation significantly sooner if a second male copulated with the female shortly after the first male’s ejaculation. Data from both groups supported the hypothesis. These results, extending previous studies in Macaca nemestrina,suggest that the shortening of copulatory intervals by social stimuli occurs in several species, both in social groups and in experimentally created triads. These findings also are consistent with the hypothesis that socially mediated resumption of mating is related to intrasexual competition among males.     

Age at first reproduction in philopatric female muriquis (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Brachyteles arachnoides hypoxanthus</Emphasis>)

Female northern muriquis (Brachyteles arachnoides hypoxanthus or B. hypoxanthus) at the Estação Biológica de Caratinga/RPPN-FMA, Minas Gerais, Brazil typically disperse from their natal groups at an average age of 6.1±0.6 years (median =6.0 years, range =5.3–7.8 years, n =22), prior to the onset of puberty and sexual activity. Immigrants do not conceive until at least their second mating season, and the minimum interval from immigration to first reproduction has been 2.0 years. Age at first reproduction in dispersing females, previously estimated at 8.9 years, has now been documented at 9.0 and 9.25 years for two females whose birth dates are known. This is older than the 7.5 years at which the only female previously known to have reproduced in her natal group gave birth. Here, we present new data from a second female that reproduced in her natal group. This female (BA) was first observed to copulate at 5.5 years, and gave birth to her first infant at 7.25 years of age. Her 1.75-year cycling-to-first conception delay was only slightly shorter than the minimum recorded for immigrant females, and thus was not responsible for her young age at first reproduction compared to dispersing females. Although our sample size is small, our findings suggest that early puberty may permit females to reproduce in their natal group, implying a possible link between life history trade-offs and dispersal patterns. Because the only two females that have reproduced in their natal group were maternal sisters, it is also possible that maternal effects on age at puberty can impact dispersal patterns, particularly in small populations of primates.     

Cuticular hydrocarbon synthesis and its maternal provisioning to embryos in the viviparous cockroach Diploptera punctata

Embryos of the viviparous cockroach Diploptera punctata accumulate large amounts of hydrocarbon (HC) of either maternal or embryonic origin. HC synthesis and its accumulation in maternal and embryonic tissues were measured over the course of gestation. Female abdominal integument was the only tissue that synthesized appreciable amounts of HC in vitro, and did so at an increasing rate from the time of mating to mid-pregnancy, when rates of synthesis declined. The embryos synthesized HC at rates <1% those of the female, showing that the majority of HC detected in and on embryos was of maternal origin. The brood sac that houses the developing embryos did not synthesize HC in vitro, indicating that HC must be transported from the female abdominal integument to the embryos. The mass of female epicuticular HC was constant at approximately 183 microg, while her internal HC increased fourfold from mating to mid-pregnancy, then declined until parturition. The decline in internal HC reflected both declining HC synthesis in the female and greater export to the embryos, as embryonic internal HC increased 250-fold prior to parturition. An external HC coating over the oothecal covering and chorion of the embryos increased to mid-pregnancy, then declined. Unlike oviparous cockroaches, D. punctata females fed throughout the reproductive cycle, reflecting the nutritional demands of continuously provisioning the developing embryos.     

First occurrence of twins in provisioned free-ranging Tibetan macaques (Macaca thibetana) at Huangshan, China

A first case of newborn Tibetan macaque (Macaca thibetana) twins was observed in a free-ranging group at Huangshan, China. The female that gave birth to the twins was studied during their first 5 months post-partum, and her activity budget was compared to those of adult females with single or no offspring in order to assess her behavioral changes. Our report shows that female Tibetan macaques can produce twins, and that twins can successfully survive. The adult female with twins spent more time foraging and resting, but less time moving and engaged in other social behaviors than adult females with a single infant or no infant. Our report provides a case of successfully surviving twins in a wild environment and suggests that the mother modified her behavior patterns to adapt to the heavy burden. We conclude that both food provisioning and the mother’s behavioral strategies facilitated the survivorship of twins. This expands our understanding of the reproductive biology of Tibetan macaques.     

Early pregnancy diagnosis of captive Amur tigers (Panthera tigris altaica)

From January 2015 to February 2017, urine samples was collected from twelve captive female Amur tigers during both their mating (or receptive) periods and the first four weeks after mating at the Hengdaohezi Feline Breeding Center (FBC) in China. A radioimmunoassay was applied to determine the progesterone levels in the urine samples. The relationship between progesterone levels and pregnancy in Amur tigers was assessed according to whether the tigers gave birth in the end. Results showed that average progesterone levels increased significantly (P < .05) after mating for all female tigers having parturition. And the minimum value of progesterone levels of them during the fourth week after mating was consistently higher than 0.21 ng/mL, the maximum value in mating period of all female tigers. However, there were no significant differences in progesterone levels between mating period and the first four weeks after mating of the female tigers having no parturition. Therefore, early pregnancy in captive Amur tigers can be diagnosed when urine progesterone concentrations attain a level higher than 0.21 ng/mL for seven days in a row after mating.     

Factors associated with birth rate and live birth rate in multi-male breeding groups of rhesus monkeys

Reproductive records of 284 female rhesus monkeys housed in six multimale corrals at the California Primate Research Center were examined for the birth seasons 1977–1982 to determine possible associations between the probability of birth or live birth and female age, parity, origin, parturition in the previous season, infant birth date, and infant birth date in previous season. Multiple logistic regression analysis was used to identify and quantitate the effects of factors on the probability of birth or live birth, while controlling for the possibly confounding effects of other factors in the model. Females who had infants early in the previous season were 2.5 times as likely to give birth as those who had infants late in the previous season. Females with two or three previous births were 2.1 times as likely to give birth, and those with four or five previous births were 6.7 times as likely to give birth as were females with no or one previous birth. Controlling for other factors (age, parity, and timing of birth in the previous season), corralborn females were 3.3 times as likely to give birth as either wild-caught or domestic-born monkeys not native to the corrals. Domestic-born females who were not corral natives were 0.3 times as likely to have live births as wild-caught females. Births late in the season were 1.8 times as likely to result in live infants as births early in the season.     

Sexual behaviour of male and female tammar wallabies (Macropus eugenii) at post-partum oestrus

This study describes the sexual behaviour of the adult male and female tammar wallaby from the time a female gives birth to the end of post-partum oestrus. Eleven females were continuously observed from around the time of birth until up to 3 h after the last observed mating attempt. Males began to associate with females from around the time of birth, thus females appear to be attractive to males at, but not prior to parturition. Females subsequently allowed males to mate with them from 1.3±0.8h (mean±S.D.) post-partum, although the first ejaculation was delayed until 1.8±0.8h after birth owing to intense intermale aggression directed towards any male which attempted to mate with an oestrous female. Mating chases, in which a post-partum female was pursued by several males, were observed from 1.3±0.8h post-partum. All of this mating activity usually occurred within the first 6h after birth.     

Observations of a daytime birthing event in wild titi monkeys (Callicebus oenanthe): implications of the male parental role

Behaviors displayed during birth events, including prenatal, parturition, and postpartum periods, can give insight into caretaking roles in species in which the offspring is cared for by individuals other than the mother. Titi monkeys, genus Callicebus, exhibit a pair-bonded social system along with intense male care of offspring. Here, I report the first case of a birth seen in the wild in a group of Callicebus oenanthe, a little-known species in northern Peru, and describe infant care and development during the first few months after birth. Detailed behavior during the birth sequence as well as ad libitum data postpartum were recorded on nursing and infant care behaviors, including infant carrying, infant grooming, anogenital cleaning, protection, playing, and food sharing. In the 3 h preceding and during parturition, the male remained in contact with or in close proximity to the female (<1 m). The male licked and examined the newborn 3 min after parturition, carried the infant within 24 h after birth, was the main carrier of the infant, and was the predominant manual groomer of the infant during the first 4 months after birth. I argue that the male plays an integral role during the birth in order to establish his bond with the infant as well as reinforce infant care duties to the female and in predator vigilance. In light of various explanations for the exhibition of intense paternal care, I suggest that the male titi monkey provides infant care to release the female of these duties in order that she may spend more time foraging, thus potentially increasing the pair’s overall reproductive output.     

Parturition in the tsetse fly Glossina morsitans: Pattern of activity,sound production and evidence for control by the mother's brain

The mature tsetse larva descends slightly in the uterus causing a protrusion of the female's abdomen and a thrusting open of the female vulva 5–6 h before parturition. Coinciding with larval descent, the female becomes conspicuously restless. The activity pattern monitored by measuring oxygen consumption shows a progression of four discrete stages of activity before and after parturition. Immediately following parturition, the female emits a low frequency sound of 5.8 min duration that differs markedly from sounds produced during feeding or mating. Parturition can be blocked by neck-ligation of the female, thus suggesting a crucial role for the brain. Both neural and hormonal pathways appear to be involved. Transection of the nerve that innervates the uterine muscles reduces the incidence of successful parturition, and parturition in neck-ligated females can be stimulated by transfusion of haemolymph from females that have recently given birth. When parturition is blocked, larvae are retained in utero but eventually pupariate after a delay of 2.3 days.     

Reproductive synchronization in squirrel monkeys (Saimiri)

Groups of squirrel monkeys (Saimiri) that are exposed to certain seasonal environmental stimuli experience a yearly reproductive cycle with discrete mating and birth seasons. Seasonal rainfall or some rainfall induced seasonal changes (such as changes in vegetation or insect fauna) appear to be responsible for timing theSaimiri reproductive cycle. Animals of both sexes show significant physiological and behavioral changes during the yearly cycle. Whether the environmental timing factors affect both the males and the females equally, or affect only one sex directly and the other sex indirectly through social communication is not clear. Three mechanisms by which the reproductive activity of both males and females could be synchronized are presented, and data from a laboratory study and a field study relevant to each mechanism are presented. Several social interaction patterns frequently observed in the field study suggest that (1) male sexual activity may excite female sexual activity through male penile display and/or other stereotyped interactions and/or (2) female sexual activity may excite male sexual activity through pheromone and/or other communication channels.     

Parturition in rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta)

During five years of birth season fieldwork, we observed two births and three peri-birth instances of behavior of free-ranging rhesus living in Kathmandu, Nepal. These constitute the first two recorded free-ranging rhesus births, and we compare them to the behavior which has been observed in captivity and expected in the wild. The free-ranging parturition behavior was characterized by a general lack of contact with other troop members and by overall inconspicuousness. In the first birth we observed, the troop moved about 70 m up the hill, leaving the laboring female behind on an open hillside. Two males, a female and a juvenile returned and rested about 20 m from the delivering female. During the second delivery, the female stayed with the troop and seemed to participate normally in most troop interactions, although she avoided physical contact with other troop members. We propose that this near-normal behavior may help to assure successful parturition by allowing the female the needed social isolation and inconspicuousness without any loss of troop protection. It may also partly explain why births have not been observed during previous studies. Observations of rhesus parturition behavior reported from studies of captive monkeys and reports from other free-ranging primate studies are compared with our data.     

A case of unusually early postpartum resumption of estrous cycling in a young female chimpanzee in the wild

A case of unusually early postpartum resumption of estrous cycling (<7 months) was recorded for a young, presumably primiparous female in the M group of chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii) in the Mahale Mountains National Park, western Tanzania. The female showed estrous cycling while lactating her infant, and mated with young and low-ranking males as well as with the alpha male.