Quantitative phytogeography of the Italian Beech Forests

This paper presents a numerical analysis of the distribution patterns in Europe and adjoining regions of 242 vascular plant species occurring in the Italian beech forests. The classification of a matrix of species and of 531 Operational Geographic Units (OGUs) led to recognition of 15 different phytogeographic elements (chorotypes). The joint distribution of the species belonging to each chorotype is shown by a chorogram, which is a geographic map obtained by computer processing of the distributional data. Some of the chorograms show the main distributional centers for the beechwood flora in southern Europe: northwestern Balkan Peninsula and eastern Alps, southern Balkan Peninsula, Maritime Alps, northern Apennines, southern Apennines. Only 20% of the species are limited to narrow areas in southern Europe, and were not able to expand considerably their ranges in postglacial times. Migration from the refugia and colonization of vast areas in central and northern Europe led to intensive speciation phenomena, occurring chiefly through the formation of neopolyploid species. Several south European, narrow-ranging species, can be considered as palaeopolyploids with relict character. There is a good relationship between distribution and ecology of the chorotypes.Abbreviations OGU Operational Geographic Unit - OGS Operational Geographic Set - OCS Operational Character Set     

Coenological research on macrofungi in evergreen oak woods in the hills near Siena (Italy)

For a mycocoenological study of macromycetes in Mediterranean evergreen forests in the Siencese province, five stands belonging to theQuercion ilicis have been observed during more than two years. The phytosociological analysis of these evergreen oak woods, situated at the limit of the geographical distribution of the alliance, reveals them as intermediate between the typical Mediterranean vegetation and the sub-Mediterranean deciduous broad-leaved forests. 181 fungal species were recognized and assigned to seven ecological groups on the basis of substratum, habitat, forest management and/or particular mycorrhizal relationship. Our results have been compared with those obtained in some European deciduous forests. Such a comparison shows the occurrence of 16 thermophilous fungal species in the Siena woods which are missing or very rare in the European deciduous forests. On the basis of our present knowledge, five of these species (Boletus lepidus, Hygrophorus dichrous, Hygrocybe nigrescens, Inocybe similis, Phellinus torulosus) may be considered as strictly tied to the evergreen oak woods. Five others, which have been reported for several European phytocoenoses, seem to be ‘preferential taxa’ of our evergreen oak woods, namely:cortinarius calochrous, C. sodagnitus, Hygrophorus arbustivus, H. russula, Lyophyllum immundum. On the whole the highest similarities have been found with the more xerothermophilous European forests (Querco-Lithospermetum andSorbo-Quercetum). The presence in theQuercus ilex woods of numerous more mesophilous fungi, some of which are widespread in beech forests, underlines the transitional nature of the phytocoenoses studied.     

The Quercus petraea-dominated communities in Italy: Floristic,coenological and chorological diversity in an European perspective

In Italy, woods dominated by Quercus petraea are well documented within local and regional phytosociological studies but a critical revision of their principal ecological-floristic components based on a comprehensive Italian data set was missing. We gathered 209 published and unpublished Italian phytosociological relevés, where Q. petraea was dominant, that were investigated by means of multivariate analysis. The ecological requirements of the resulting groups were indirectly calculated by means of Ellenberg indicator value, and a chorological analysis was performed. The fidelity coefficient (phi) for the diagnostic species of each group was calculated. According to our analysis, five different types of Q. petraea woods were found to be present in Italy. Each group was characterized by means of its floristic, ecological and chorological components. These resulting five groups were further compared with similar Q. petraea-dominated woods recorded in other European locations, as to the floristic and chorological components. We collected 57 synoptic tables of Q. petraea communities coming from all over Europe. This data set, together with the Italian relevés, was submitted to exploratory multivariate analysis using also the chorological information. According to these analyses, the Italian woods dominated by Q. petraea can be subdivided in two main clusters: the communities belonging to It-1 group (Alps) fell within the central European communities, distinguished by the predominance of large distribution and European chorotypes. All the other Italian groups of relevés resulted to be positioned in the cluster which includes central southern, central eastern and eastern European Q. petraea communities. From the syntaxonomical point of view, the results of this analysis allow to attribute the Italian Q. petraea woods to seven alliances of three different orders. The ecological similarities between Erythronio-Quercion petraeae and Erythronio-Carpinion betuli are highlighted and the distribution of Erythronio-Quercion petraeae is limited to northern Apennines, in particular, to slopes facing the Po Valley.     

Phytogeography of the bryophyte floras of oak forests and páramo of the Cordillera de Talamanca, Costa Rica

Aim Central America is a biogeographically interesting area because of its location between the rich and very different biota of North and South America. We aim to assess phytogeographical patterns in the bryophyte floras of oak forests and páramo of the Cordillera de Talamanca, Costa Rica. Location Tropical America, in particular the montane area of Cordillera de Talamanca, Costa Rica. Methods The analysis is based on a new critical inventory of the montane bryophyte flora of Cordillera de Talamanca. All species were assigned to phytogeographical elements on the basis of their currently known distribution. Absolute and percentage similarities were employed to evaluate floristic affinities. Results A total of 401 species [191 hepatics (liverworts), one hornwort, 209 mosses] are recorded; of these, 251 species (128 hepatics, one hornwort, 122 mosses) occur in oak forests. Ninety‐three per cent of all oak forest species are tropical in distribution, the remaining 7% are temperate (4%) and cosmopolitan (3%) species. The neotropical element includes almost 74% of the species, the wide tropical element (pantropical, amphi‐atlantic, amphi‐pacific) only 19%. A significant part of the neotropical species from oak forests are species with tropical Andean‐centred ranges (27%). As compared with bryophyte species, vascular plant genera in the study region are represented by fewer neotropical, more temperate and more amphi‐pacific taxa. Bryophyte floras of different microhabitats within the oak forest and epiphytic bryophyte floras on Quercus copeyensis in primary, early secondary and late secondary oak forest show a similar phytogeographical make‐up to the total oak forest bryophyte flora. Comparison of oak forest and páramo reveals a greater affinity of the páramo bryophyte flora to temperate regions and the great importance of the páramo element in páramo. Surprisingly, oak forests have more Central American endemics than páramo. Main conclusions (1) Providing first insights into the phytogeographical patterns of the bryophyte flora of oak forests and páramo, we are able to confirm general phytogeographical trends recorded from vascular plant genera of the study area although the latter were more rich in temperate taxa. (2) Andean‐centred species are a conspicuous element in the bryophyte flora of Cordillera de Talamanca, reflecting the close historical connection between the montane bryophyte floras of Costa Rica and South America. (3) High percentages of Central American endemics in the bryophyte flora of the oak forests suggest the importance of climatic changes associated with Pleistocene glaciations for allopatric speciation.     

Syntaxonomy and phytogeographical differentiation of the Fagus woods in the Southwest Balkan Peninsula

Abstract. Up to now the syntaxonomy of the Fagus woods of the southern Balkans is far less known than that of beech communities in the northwestern part of the Balkan Peninsula and in central and western Europe. A set of 607 phytosociological relevés from southeastern Serbia, the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, and northern and central Greece was subjected to numerical classification and ordination. These results were used for a syntaxonomic revision of Fagus, Fagus‐Abies and Fagus‐Acer woodland communities of the southwestern Balkans. The Doronico columnae‐Fagenion (seven associations from Serbia, the F.Y.R.O.M., and high altitudes in northern Greece) and the Doronico orientalis‐Fagenion (four associations from northern and central Greece) were distinguished. The results of ordination by Canonical Variates Analysis (CVA) showed a very distinct phytogeographical pattern of differentiation between community types. The floristic composition of Fagus woods changes markedly along the north‐south gradient. The share of Subbalkan, Balkan, Submediterranean and Mediterranean species increases significantly towards the south, while the Central‐European, European, Euro‐Siberian, Euro‐Asiatic and Circumpolar species decrease in the same direction. The syntaxonomic differentiation of the Fagus woodlands and their classification into regional suballiances reflects this gradient. With the rise in altitude, the number of Balkan, Mediterranean, Submediterranean, European and Euro‐Asiatic species declines.     

Eurasian badger habitat selection in Mediterranean environments: Does scale really matter?

It is widely believed that spatial scale affects habitat selection, and should influence management options, especially for species with wide geographic distribution or large territories. Eurasian badger habitat selection has been well studied throughout most of its European distribution range, but never at multiple spatial scales. We used compositional analysis to assess habitat selection of Eurasian badgers in southern Portugal at four spatial scales (1, 4, 25, and 100 km²). We assessed habitat use from setts, latrines and footprints presence, and road kills. Oak woodlands with understorey were selected at all scales, being the most preferred habitat at 3 scales (1, 4, and 100 km²). Pastures were most selected at the scale of the 25 km² cell, but their use was not significantly different from oak woodland with understorey. Shrubs and pastures were also secondly important at the majority of scales. Contrary to findings at northern latitudes, deciduous forests decreased in importance as cell size increased. In the highly humanized and fragmented landscape of southern Portugal, Eurasian badgers are selecting the matrix of oak woodlands interspersed with patches of pastures, shrubs and riparian vegetation. In these oak woodlands, scale does not have a marked effect. Management for badgers should provide, for at least, 30% of oak woodland cover at all scales. Our study illustrates the across-scale importance of maintaining the historically human altered, sustainable and unique landscape and land use system – the montado.     

Relations between the floristic composition of isolated young woods and their proximity to ancient woodland

Abstract. Recent studies indicate that, in the present-day agricultural landscape, the floristic composition of young woodland communities can be fully developed if the woods are situated adjacent to ancient woodlands. Four 70-yr-old deciduous woods in the Carpathian foothills were examined in relation to three adjacent ancient oak-hornbeam and oak-pine woodlands, which are the nearest source of woodland species diaspores. On the basis of data from 208 plots, the frequencies of various species groups in the field layer of the woods were analysed. The dependence of vegetation differentiation within the recent woods on (a) distance to the border with the ancient woodlands and (b) light intensity was examined by Partial Detrended Canonical Correspondence Analysis (DCCA). A significant relation between distance to ancient woodland and species composition was found for recent woods on rich brown soils. The vegetatively propagating species, myrmecochores and small autochores attained higher cover values near ancient woodland; endozoochores and anemochores were most abundant further away. Within recent, more open woods on poor podzolic and leached brown soils, colonisation is strongly inhibited by dense growth of Carex brizoides; here, vegetation regeneration is much slower than in woods on rich soils much further away from the source of diaspores.     

Phytogeography of parasteppic vegetation in the high Friulian Plain (NE Italy)

The vascular flora of pedologically conditioned, extensive dry grasslands occurring in a very rainy area of northeastern Italy, was submitted to phytogeographic analysis. The distributional ranges of 144 species were digitized into two presence-absence matrices of species and Operational Geographic Units (quadrants), one covering Europe, the other, limited to 56 species with extra-European distributions, extended to the Northern Hemisphere north of the Tropic of Cancer. These matrices were submitted to numerical classification, obtaining clusters of species with similar distributional patterns (chorotypes). For each cluster of species, the percent occurrencies in each quadrant were processed by a program of automatic mapping, producing a series of isoporic maps showing the joint distribution of the species of each cluster. The species can be subdivided into six main phytogeographical groups: (1) Narrow-ranging (34% of the total), including the endemic, subendemic, Illyrian-Balcanic and NW submediterranean elements, (2) Southern European-Submediterranean (18.8%), (3) Wide-ranging European (16.6%), (4) Eastern-Pontic (7.6%), (5) Southern Eurasiatic (10.5%), (6) Northern Eurasiatic (12.5%). The phytogeographic originality of the investigated grasslands is high, with more than one third of the species having narrow distributional ranges. Particularly relevant are the connections with the Balkanic-Illyrian and the eastern Alpine regions.Nomenclature: Pignatti (1982).     

Phylogeography of the white-breasted nuthatch (Sitta carolinensis): diversification in North American pine and oak woodlands

Pine and oak woodlands are common North American floral communities with distinct regional species composition. The white-breasted nuthatch (Aves: Sitta carolinensis) is a common resident bird of North American pine and oak woodlands, and is distributed continentally across the highly disjunct distribution of these woodlands. We propose three historical hypotheses to explain the evolution of the white-breasted nuthatch in its principal habitat. (i) The species evolved in situ in the regional pine-oak communities and the isolation of populations in these regions is captured in cryptic genetic variation. (ii) Migration of individuals between regions is frequent enough to maintain the widespread distributions and prevent regional divergence. (iii) The species have recently expanded to occupy their current distributions and an insufficient amount of time has passed for divergence to occur. Phylogenetic analysis of mitochondrial DNA (ND2 gene) variation (N = 216) in the white-breasted nuthatch reveals four reciprocally monophyletic clades concordant with the distribution of the regional North American pine and oak woodlands, and supports hypothesis 1 of in situ evolution of populations in the regional pine and oak communities. Within-clade population structure and demographic history are also discussed.     

Characteristics of woods used recently and historically by Lesser Spotted Woodpeckers Dendrocopos minor in England

Lesser Spotted Woodpecker Dendrocopos minor numbers have declined greatly in England since the early 1980s for reasons that are not yet fully understood. It has been suggested that the species’ decline may be linked to the increase in Great Spotted Woodpeckers Dendrocopos major, changes in woodland habitat quality (such as deadwood abundance) and landscape‐scale changes in tree abundance. We tested some of these hypotheses by comparing the characteristics of woods in southern England where the species is still relatively numerous with those of woods used in the 1980s before the major decline. In each time period, habitat, predator and landscape information from woods known to be occupied by Lesser Spotted Woodpeckers was compared with those found to be unoccupied during surveys. Before the main period of decline, Lesser Spotted Woodpeckers used oak‐dominated, mature, open woods with a large amount of standing deadwood. Habitat use assessed from recent data was very similar, the species being present in mature, open, oak‐dominated woodlands. There was a strong relationship between wood use probability and the extent of woodland within a 3‐km radius, suggesting selection for more heavily wooded landscapes. In recent surveys, there was no difference in deadwood abundance or potential predator densities between occupied and unoccupied woods. Habitat management should focus on creating and maintaining networks of connected woodlands in areas of mature, open woods. Finer‐scale habitat selection by Lesser Spotted Woodpecker within woodlands should be assessed to aid development of beneficial management actions.     

Contrasting ectomycorrhizal fungal communities on the roots of co-occurring oaks (Quercus spp.) in a California woodland

Plant host species is considered an important factor influencing ectomycorrhizal (EM) communities. To gain insights into the role of host species in structuring EM communities, EM communities on sympatric oak (Quercus) species were compared in the Sierra Nevada foothills of California. Using molecular methods (polymerase chain reaction, cloning, restriction fragment length polymorphism and DNA sequencing), EM fungi on roots of deciduous Quercus douglasii and evergreen Quercus wislizeni trees were identified from 64 soil cores. The total EM species richness was 140, of which 40 taxa were detected on both oak hosts. Greater diversity and frequency of EM fungi with epigeous fruiting habit were found on Q. wislizeni, while taxa in the Ascomycota were more frequent and diverse on Q. douglasii. Using ordination, it was determined that both soil extractable phosphorus and oak host species explained a significant proportion of the variation in EM species distribution. These results indicate that plant host species can be an important factor influencing EM fungal community composition, even within congeneric trees.     

Anthropogenous areal extension of central European woody species on the British Isles and its significance for the judgement of the present potential natural vegetation

Several central European species have failed to reach the British Isles because of the early separation from the continent. The two tree species Fagus sylvatica and Carpinus betulus reached southern England but were unable to spread much further. Other species, such as Acer pseudoplatanus, were only relatively recently introduced. Recent distribution maps for Fagus and Acer show an almost uninterrupted distribution in the whole British Isles. The beech must be considered to be an important element of the present potential natural vegetation; it has been planted widely and regenerates freely. The woodlands of Brittany may provide a model to enable us to visualize the possible species composition and appearance of these potential Atlantic beech woods.Nomenclature of vascular taxa follows Ehrendorfer (1973).     

Biogeographical zonation of African hornbills and their biotic and geographic characterisations

We studied the geographic ranges of the 23 African hornbill species using countries as distribution units, to search for either groups of similar distributions (chorotypes) or gradual replacement of species as two different types of distribution patterns. We used a probabilistic classification method to distinguish between these two types of biogeographic patterns. Then we analysed the influence of climate, area, surface covered by different types of habitat, and human disturbance in each country, as well as biotic features of the species involving the habitat preference, feeding requirements and habits, body size, sexual dimorphism, and metabolic parameters, on the biogeographic patterns detected. We found that 20 species were significantly classified into three chorotypes. The western-central chorotype comprises nine species characterised by their preference for forest habitat and their low sexual body mass dimorphism. These species occur in 25 countries, characterised by their low range of temperatures. The eastern chorotype includes three species characterised by their preference for feeding on the ground and greater dimorphism in mass between the sexes. Seven countries, characterised by their high values of savanna and grassland surface area, constitute the geographic element of this chorotype. The southern chorotype involves the distribution of eight species characterised by their preference for montane and coastal forests or woodlands. Eighteen countries fall into this chorotype and are characterised by their low values of temperature in the coldest month and greater surface area of desert scrub and desert forest. The other three species replace each other mainly following a gradual pattern within the study area.     

Mycocoenologial studies in deciduous oak woods of central-southern Tuscany (Italy)

We report results of a mycocoenological study in deciduous oak woods growing on different lithological substrates (siliceous and calcareous) in central-southern Tuscany. The data obtained are analysed in relation to environmental parameters to determine their influence on the composition of fungal communities in the study areas.     

A phytogeographic analysis of birch woodlands in the southern part of West Siberia

A minimum variance cluster analysis of 87 species of vascular plants occurring in south Siberian birch woodlands, based on their total distribution ranges, grouped them into 9 phytogeographic elements. The main distribution patterns of each element are illustrated by means of maps obtained by automatic mapping programs, showing the joint occurrence of the species of each element on a world scale. The results indicate a predominance of Eurasiatic-temperate taxa. The south Siberian birch woodlands can be considered as the easternmost extensions of the European deciduous forest belt, which in Siberia is compressed between the taiga biome in the north and the steppe biome in the south. The marginal position of Siberian Betula stands is reflected by the persistence of plants which are ecologically marginal with respect to true forest vegetation; most of the Eurasiatic species are typical, in Europe, of forest-meadows and forest-margins.     

Analysis of the ways of formation of the entomofaunistic complexes in the Northwest Caucasus based on the material on coleopterous insects (Coleoptera)

By the example of 14 coleopterous insect families, namely Gyrinidae, Haliplidae, Noteridae, Dytiscidae, Carabidae, Hydrophilidae, Staphylinidae, Lucanidae, Trogidae, Scarabaeidae, Elateridae, Alleculidae, Tenebrionidae, and Chrysomelidae, regularities and the basic sources of formation of the most typical landscapecoenotic complexes in the Northwest Caucasus are discussed. The total number of the species included in the material analyzed amounts to about 2000. The maximal species diversity (854 species) is registered for the deciduous forests and dry open woodlands. In total, 11 types of the chorological complexes and distributional ranges (chorotypes) of the regional beetle fauna are distinguished. Significant concordance of the chorologic patterns in some groups of beetles is established. In this respect, Carabidae and Tenebrionoidea seem to be the closest on the one hand, and also Elateridae and Scarabaeoidea, on the other. The zonal fauna of the Northwest Caucasus is formed basically by species possessing Boreal ranges, while the azonal fauna, predominantly by species with the Ancient Mediterranean ranges. Allocation of coleopterous insects within regional zoochorones is investigated as well. It is established, that in different zoochorones of the upland part of the region the majority of coenofaunas show significant similarity of the arealogical pattern, even though being composed frequently by different taxa. The fauna of agrarian landscapes of the Northwest Caucasus is also examined. It includes 382 beetle species. The overwhelming majority of them belongs to the ground beetles (229 species), leaf beetles (78), and Scarabaeoidea (30). This fauna reveals the maximal similarity with the coenofaunas of the lowland steppe and meadows. It is established that the major role in formation of the agrocenoses beetle fauna belongs to the natural plain and upland steppe and treeless fields, foothill broad-leaf forests and open woodlands, and also to the floodplain and lowland forests. The bulk of the species occurring in the agrocenoses possesses wide ranges, predominantly of the Boreal type. Some peculiarities of the regional endemism are discussed as well.     

Inquadramento fitosociologico delle leccete dei dintorni di Siena

Abstract

A phytosociological study of the Quercus ilex woods in the surroundings of Siena (Italy). – Numerous stands of Quercus ilex woods around Siena have been studied phytosociologically and compared to the better known similar forests of Southern France. As a rule the Siennese Quercus ilex woods (Table 1) can not be considered to belong to the association Quercetum mediterraneo-montanum Br.-Bl. 1936 because of the absence of various significant central European and montane species, nor to Quercetum galloprovinciale because of the presence of too great a number of Quercetalia pubescenti-petraeae and Querco-Fagetea species. Only rarely communities similar to the first mentioned association have been found: i.e. on Mount Cetona at 1.800 feet and in two particularly cool and humid localities at a lower height (Table 2). Taking into account the way these woods have been managed for centuries it can be concluded that they are mixed formations of Quercetum galloprovinciale and an oakwood association belonging to the order Quercetalia pubescenti-petraeae; the exploitation techniques have caused the evergreen oak to become dominant therefore creating conditions favourable to the more thermophilous and shade loving plants characterics of Q. ilex woods and at the same time bringing about a sharp decrease in the number of the light demanding species typical of deciduous oakwoods.     

Cork oak woodlands in the north Tyrrhenian area (Italy): distribution and plant species diversity of a relict forest ecosystem

Italian north Tyrrhenian regions harbour pure or nearly pure cork oak woodlands towards the NE limit of the species range and the highest proportion of the habitat on mainland Italy, but their distribution, biodiversity and conservation status are still poorly known. Focusing on the key region of Tuscany, we analysed distribution and plant species richness of these forests based on literature and original field data. The habitat covers about 5.730?ha and is strongly fragmented for natural and non-natural reasons, underscoring its relict character. Out of the 420 plant taxa recorded, 19 were listed in IUCN categories at the national or regional level. Taxonomic singularity was especially high at the genus rank. Three neighbouring areas with different soil conditions and forest structure were compared based on field surveys, sample plots and linear transects from dense stands to shrub and herbaceous communities of small openings. The Versegge site showed the highest species richness at the area-scale and the mean diversity at the plot scale, representing a key biotope for the conservation of the habitat. However, the geographic–floristic covariation between the three sites suggested that a network of small areas would be more effective than a single, large area to protect the most significant components of the local cork oak flora. The Lattaia and Terzo areas may play an important role as corridor sites between the four SCIs of the Rete Natura 2000 network including cork oak communities on the Tuscan mainland. Species richness was higher in the stands with lower cork oak basal area, and there was a significant increase in species number along transects reaching openings caused by traditional human activities. A minor anthropic disturbance of traditional type may help to preserve the fine-scale habitat heterogeneity and the biodiversity of the whole ecosystem.     

Ecogeographical differentiation of the Submediterranean deciduous forest flora

The deciduous wood flora of southern Europe is characterized as a special nemoral-Submediterranean element. The distribution patterns of some representatives (total ranges and local areas in Roumania) are described and explained by recent climatic conditions. The northern limits of Submediterranean and Submediterranean-middle European deciduous forest taxa exhibit a continuous gradation, but only a few species with a wide ecological amplitude extend into the temperate zone.     

A comparison of biological characteristics and distribution between Swedish threatened and non-threatened forest vascular plants

Threatened (n = 59) and non-threatened (n = 308) Swedish forest vascular plant taxa were compared with regard to a number of variables, including distribution, site factors taxonomy, morphology and flowering time A majority of the threatened taxa occur in the southern deciduous woodlands, which only constitute c 0.5% of the total forested area in Sweden There are considerably more threatened taxa in southern than in northern Sweden, a consequence of the successively higher number of forest vascular plants from the north towards the south Threatened taxa grow in forests with significantly higher soil fertility than non-threatened taxa Significant differences were also revealed regarding light conditions, soil water conditions and month of flowering Threatened taxa grow on soils with significantly higher pH and also with slightly more available nitrogen than non-threatened taxa, as measured with Ellenberg indicator values Forest stands on fertile soils are uncommon in Sweden and they are also very species-rich Soil-type rarity in combination with high species diversity in these soil types thus partly explain why taxa are included in the Swedish Red data list