卵泡颗粒细胞凋亡相关蛋白的研究进展

哺乳动物的卵巢中存在大量卵泡。大多数卵泡在发育过程中发生闭锁而消失,只有少数可以发育到成熟而排卵。卵泡是由卵母细胞与其周围的颗粒细胞构成的。卵泡颗粒细胞的凋亡是卵泡闭锁的主要原因。颗粒细胞凋亡相关蛋白通过参与凋亡通路及凋亡信号转导调节凋亡。本文就哺乳动物卵泡颗粒细胞凋亡相关蛋白的研究进展进行综述。     

前列腺凋亡反应蛋白-4抗肿瘤作用研究进展

前列腺凋亡反应基因-4（prostate apoptosis responsegene．4,par-4）是从凋亡的前列腺癌细胞中分离出来的一种基因,该基因编码的产物是前列腺凋亡反应蛋白4（Par-4）。Par-4可通过细胞内、外途径调节各种分子表达,诱导癌细胞凋亡,选择性抑制肿瘤细胞生长,因此,Par-4的表达与肿瘤的发生、发展及预后有密切的联系。Par-4在治疗恶性肿瘤中表现出良好的肿瘤细胞靶向杀伤效应,对正常组织细胞无明显影响,故具有极其重要的应用价值。就Par-4特异性诱导肿瘤细胞凋亡及其潜在抗肿瘤作用的进展进行综述。     

Increased dexamethasone-induced apoptosis of thymocytes from mice exposed to long-term extremely low frequency magnetic fields

To address the effect of extremely low frequency electromagnetic fields on programmed cell death we assessed both the spontaneous and dexamethasone (Dex)-induced apoptosis of thymocytes and spleen cells from mice submitted to a long-term continuous exposure of a 0.4–1.0 μT 60 Hz magnetic field or an 8–20 μT direct current (DC) magnetic field. Dex-induced apoptosis but not spontaneous apoptosis was substantially increased in thymocytes from 0.4 to 1.0 μT 60 Hz field-exposed animals. Spontaneous apoptosis and Dex-induced apoptosis of spleen cells were not affected by the 0.4–1.0 μT 60 Hz field exposure. In addition, spontaneous apoptosis and Dex-induced apoptosis of thymocytes and spleen cells from mice exposed to an 8–20 μT DC field were similar to the controls. These findings represent the first demonstration that thymocytes from mice exposed to a long-term 0.4–1.0 μT 60 Hz field may show abnormal response to Dex apoptotic stimuli. Bioelectromagnetics 19:131–135, 1998. © 1998 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

巨噬细胞凋亡及其调控

巨噬细胞通过介导和调控自身及其他细胞凋亡而实现其免疫调节和效应细胞功能.引起巨噬细胞凋亡的原因有生物、化学、病理、自身等因素.不仅巨噬细胞自身凋亡和凋亡调控有其特点,更为有趣的是,巨噬细胞可根据需要：介导或抑制自身凋亡;介导或抑制其他细胞凋亡;抑制自身凋亡,介导其他细胞凋亡.这可能是巨噬细胞在免疫调节,特别是肿瘤免疫中发挥重要作用的基础.     

CARP is a novel caspase recruitment domain containing pro-apoptotic protein

Many CARD-containing caspase mediators interact with CARD-containing caspases and participate in activation or suppression of caspases. We cloned a novel CARD-containing protein from our EST database, named CARP. Computational characterization revealed that CARP encoded 445 amino acids with predicted MW 49.7 kDa, localized at chromosome 10p13 with 15 exons, and four putative function domains, one CARD domain (aa 160-243), one nuclear receptor-binding motif, two EF-hand motifs, and 42% alpha-helix content. Stable transfection of CARP into lung carcinoma A549 and HEK293S cells leads to 23% of the cells undergoing apoptosis, but only 3% in the cells transfected with empty control vector. The cell proliferation was significantly inhibited by 1.2-5 folds (P<0.02) in seven CARP-transfected tumor cell lines-lung carcinoma A549 and PG, melanoma WM451, prostate cancer PC-3 and PC-3M, liver cancer H7402, and bladder cancer BIU87. Our results suggest that CARP is a novel CARD-containing pro-apoptotic protein.     

Apoptosis in the Nervous System

Apoptosis (from the Greek apoptosis, i.e., falling of leaves) is the phenomenon of programmed cell death, which plays an important role in the normal embryonic development and maintenance of the homeostasis of the differentiated tissues of adult organisms. Completion of the apoptosis process is accompanied by specific morphological and biochemical changes in the involved cells. Various disturbances in the control of apoptosis underlie various neurodegenerative diseases, the formation of malignant tumors, autoimmune disturbances, and developmental abnormalities. A deficit of neurotrophic factors leads to apoptosis of neurons. The survival of specific cell populations of neurons is controlled by neurotrophic factors and their combinations. Oncogene bcl-2, a repressor of cell death, belongs to the better-studied factors controlling apoptosis. The terminal stages of cell death, including the death of neurons, depend on the activation of caspases, specifically caspase-1 (interleukin-1-converting enzyme). Ca²⁺and reactive forms of oxygen play an important role in the initiation of apoptosis by changing the mitochondrial permeability. Neuregulin, a factor of neuronal origin, is the main controlling factor in apoptosis of Schwann cells, and this process determines the size of their definitive population. Fibroblast growth factor b diminishes the apoptosis of Schwann cells in regenerating nerve fibers.     

The heat shock protein 27 (Hsp27) operates predominantly by blocking the mitochondrial-independent/extrinsic pathway of cellular apoptosis

Heat shock protein 27 (Hsp27) is a molecular chaperone protein which regulates cell apoptosis by interacting directly with the caspase activation components in the apoptotic pathways. With the assistance of the Tat protein transduction domain we directly delivered the Hsp27 into the myocardial cell line, H9c2 and demonstrate that this protein can reverse hypoxia-induced apoptosis of cells. In order to characterize the contribution of Hsp27 in blocking the two major apoptotic pathways operational within cells, we exposed H9c2 cells to staurosporine and cobalt chloride, agents that induce mitochondria-dependent (intrinsic) and -independent (extrinsic) pathways of apoptosis in cells respectively. The Tat-Hsp27 fusion protein showed a greater propensity to inhibit the effect induced by the cobalt chloride treatment. These data suggest that the Hsp27 predominantly exerts its protective effect by interfering with the components of the extrinsic pathway of apoptosis. These authors contributed equally to this work.     

Acetic acid induces a programmed cell death process in the food spoilage yeast Zygosaccharomyces bailii

Here we show that 320-800 mM acetic acid induces in Zygosaccharomyces bailii a programmed cell death (PCD) process that is inhibited by cycloheximide, is accompanied by structural and biochemical alterations typical of apoptosis, and occurs in cells with preserved mitochondrial and plasma membrane integrity (as revealed by rhodamine 123 (Rh123) and propidium iodide (PI) staining, respectively). Mitochondrial ultrastructural changes, namely decrease of the cristae number, formation of myelinic bodies and swelling were also seen. Exposure to acetic acid above 800 mM resulted in killing by necrosis. The occurrence of an acetic acid-induced active cell death process in Z. bailii reinforces the concept of a physiological role of the PCD in the normal yeast life cycle.     

Molecular mechanisms of “detachment-induced apoptosis—Anoikis”

Apoptosis following loss of cell anchorage is of relevance for development, tissue homeostasis and disease. In the following the role of cell-matrix anchorage as well as cell-cell anchorage for cell survival and apoptosis is reviewed and the complex molecular mechanisms inducing and perpetuating detachment-induced apoptosis will be discussed with special emphasis on the role of caspases, p53, bcl-2 family members and the Fas signaling pathway.     

Role of apoptosis in autoimmunity

Apoptosis is a physiological form of cell death required to ensure that the rate of cell division is balanced by the rate of cell death in multicellular organisms. Dysregulation of apoptosis is associated with the pathogenesis of a wide array of diseases: cancer, neurodegeneration, autoimmunity, heart disease and others. In this review we collect arguments supporting a hypothesis of a dysregulated apoptosis leading to development of autoimmunity like systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE). This notion is supported by occurence of known autoantigens in apoptotic blebs, in vitro findings of an increased rate of apoptotic lymphoblasts despite optimal cytokine stimulation combined with a defective in vitro clearance of apoptotic bodies by SLE phagocytes. Moreover, we and others could generate histone-specific lymphocytic cell lines from cells after activation with autologous apoptotic material. These lymphocytes could stimulate autologous B-lymphocytes to produce of anti-dsDNA antibodies, a diagnostic hallmark for SLE. Finally, antibodies against phospholipids like phosphatidylserine are often associated with systemic autoimmunopathies like SLE and others. Phosphatidylserine is exposed on apoptotic cells as early sign of programmed cell death and serves as phagocyte recognition molecule for apoptotic cells. Formation of immune complexes and deposition in tissues might lead to organ damage and disease. This scenario will be discussed in this review in detail.     

细胞凋亡蛋白酶活化因子（Apafs）的功能研究

细胞凋亡蛋白酶活化因子(Apafs)参与激活程序性细胞死亡(PCD)过程中的胱冬肽酶(caspase或Casp)。Apaf1、细胞色素c(Apaf2)及Casp9(Apaf3)首先形成凋亡体,随后Casp9激活Casp3,进而引发PCD最后阶段的细胞学事件。Apafs的突变或缺失会导致脑和视网膜的异常发育。对Apafs功能的研究将为神经退化性疾病和癌症的治疗开辟新路。     

Apoptosis resistance in Chlamydia-infected cells: a fate worse than death?

Chlamydia has long been studied as an intracellular pathogen causing widespread diseases. In the last three decades, the field of apoptosis has rapidly emerged, and as a consequence, research on infectious diseases in general and on Chlamydia –host interaction in particular shifted to apoptosis modulation. Ten years ago, the first paper describing the drastic inhibition of apoptosis in Chlamydia -infected cells was published. In a reversal of roles, here was a pathogen that was strongly protecting cells in an organism against destruction by the organism's immune system. Since then, numerous studies have described apoptosis inhibition by Chlamydia and the mechanisms involved, but still there is a lack of general consensus on the subject. With a section of studies even reporting the induction of cell death by Chlamydia and not its inhibition, the field became even more diverse and complicated. In this review, an attempt is made to discuss the recent findings on apoptosis modulation by chlamydial species.     

Survivin: A target from brain cancer to neurodegenerative disease

Apoptosis is an important contributing factor during neuronal death in a variety of neurodegenerative disorders, including multiple sclerosis, Parkinson’s disease and sciatic nerve injury. Whereas several clinical and preclinical studies have focused on the neuroprotective effects of caspase inhibitors, their clinical benefits are still unclear. Here, we discuss novel alternative strategies to protect neuronal cells from apoptotic death using members of the inhibitors of apoptosis (IAP) family. We specifically review the different roles of survivin, which is an important member of the IAP family that serves a dual role in the inhibition of apoptosis as well as a vital role in mitosis and cell division. Due to the various roles of survivin during cell division and apoptosis, targeting this protein illustrates a new therapeutic window for the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases.     

紫杉醇诱导凋亡的信号传导通路及与凋亡相关的基因和蛋白

紫杉醇对临床多种恶性肿瘤都有疗效,并具广阔的市场应用前景,其抗癌机制是致使肿瘤细胞发生细胞周期阻滞而凋亡.作者结合课题组多年来的研究,对紫杉醇诱导凋亡过程中的信号通路、相关基因及蛋白进行介绍,包括微生物发酵生产紫杉醇的基因、细胞周期蛋白、端粒酶等.     

New concepts in radiation-induced apoptosis: 'premitotic apoptosis' and 'postmitotic apoptosis'

Formerly, the mechanisms responsible for the killing of cells by ionizing radiation were regarded as being divided into two distinct forms, interphase death and reproductive death. Since they were defined based on the classical radiobiological concepts using a clonogenic cell survival assay, biochemical and molecular biological mechanisms involved in the induction of radiation-induced cell death were not fully understood in relation to the modes of cell death. Recent multidisciplinary approaches to cell death mechanism have revealed that radiation-induced cell death is divided into several distinct pathways by the time course and cell-cycle position, and that apoptotic cell death plays a key role in almost every mode of cell death. This review discusses the mechanisms of radiation-induced apoptosis in relation to cellcycle progression and highlights a new concept of the mode of cell death: 'premitotic apoptosis' and 'postmitotic apoptosis'. The former is a rapid apoptotic cell death associated with a prompt activation of caspase-3, a key enzyme of intracellular signaling of apoptosis. Arapid execution of cell killing in premitotic apoptosis is presumably due to the prompt activation of a set of pre-existed molecules following DNA damages. In contrast, the latter is a delayed apoptotic cell death after cell division, and unlike premitotic apoptosis, it neither requires a rapid activation of caspase-3 nor is inhibited by a specific inhibitor, Ac-DEVD-CHO. A downregulation of anti-apoptotic genes such as MAPK and Bcl-2 may play a key role in this mode of cell death. Characterization of these two types of apoptotic cell death regarding the cell cycle regulation and intrcellular signaling will greatly help to understand the mechanisms of radiation-induced apoptosis.     

几种细胞凋亡检测方法的比较

近年来,凋亡细胞的检测方法从以形态学观察发展到生物化学、免疫化学和分子生物学等定性和定量测定技术,并在细胞、染色质到分子水平日趋完善和成熟。这些方法多用于描述DNA的片段化和细胞死亡过程中许多特定成分的检测。细胞凋亡具有其生物复杂性,检测方法要求灵敏度高、特异性强、准确性好、凋亡与坏死的区分明显等。由于每种方法各有优缺点,故应避免使用单一方法检测。     

Peptidoglycan from Staphylococcus aureus has an anti‐apoptotic effect in HaCaT keratinocytes mediated by the production of the cellular inhibitor of apoptosis protein‐2

Colonization of epithelium by microorganisms leads to inflammatory responses. In some cases an anti‐apoptotic response involving the cellular inhibitor of apoptosis protein‐2 (cIAP‐2) also occurs. Although strong expression of cIAP‐2 has been observed in lesional skin from psoriatic patients and in HaCaT keratinocytes treated with peptidoglycan (PGN) from Staphylococcus aureus, anti‐apoptotic responses induced in the skin by cIAP‐2 have seldom been studied. In this study, the effect of PGN on TNF‐α‐induced apoptotic HaCaT keratinocytes was assessed. Morphological analysis, quantification of cells with DNA fragmentation and active caspase‐3 detection was performed to assess apoptotic cell death. Greater LL‐37 and cIAP‐2 production was found in keratinocytes stimulated with PGN than in non‐treated cells (P < 0.05). In comparison with cells treated with TNF‐α only, a significant reduction in apoptotic cell death was observed when HaCaT were pretreated with PGN before inducing apoptosis with TNF‐α (P < 0.05). In addition, an inhibitor of cIAP‐2 activity (LCL161) stopped the PGN effect. These findings show that PGN from S. aureus has an anti‐apoptotic effect in keratinocytes mediated by cIAP‐2 production, suggesting that this anti‐apoptotic activity could favor proliferation of keratinocytes in psoriasis.     

Silibinin triggers yeast apoptosis related to mitochondrial Ca2+ influx in Candida albicans

Candida albicans is a common yeast that resides in the human body, but can occasionally cause systemic fungal infection, namely candidiasis. As this infection rate is gradually increasing, it is becoming a major problem to public health. Accordingly, we for the first time investigated the antifungal activity and mode of action of silibinin, a natural product extracted from Silybum marianum (milk thistle), against C. albicans. On treatment with 100 μM silibinin, generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) from mitochondria, which can cause yeast apoptosis via oxidative stress, was increased by 24.17% compared to that in untreated cells. Subsequently, we found disturbances in ion homeostasis such as release of intracellular K⁺ and accumulation of cytoplasmic and mitochondrial Ca²⁺. Among these phenomena, mitochondrial Ca²⁺ overload particularly plays a crucial role in the process of apoptosis, promoting the activation of pro-apoptotic factors. Therefore, we investigated the significance of mitochondrial Ca²⁺ in apoptosis by employing 20 mM ruthenium red (RR). Additional apoptosis hallmarks such as mitochondrial membrane depolarization, cytochrome c release, caspase activation, phosphatidylserine (PS) exposure, and DNA damage were observed in response to silibinin treatment, whereas RR pre-treatment seemed to block these responses. In summary, our results suggest that silibinin induces yeast apoptosis mediated by mitochondrial Ca²⁺ signaling in C. albicans.