c-di-AMP——细菌中第二信使的研究进展

环二腺苷酸(cyclic diadenylate monophosphate,c-di-AMP)是新发现的在细菌中广泛存在的一类重要的第二信使。c-di-AMP不仅与细菌的生长、细胞壁的代谢平衡、生物被膜的形成等密切相关,还在真核宿主细胞抗感染的固有免疫中发挥重要作用。主要从c-di-AMP的合成酶与降解酶、c-di-AMP在病原菌中的结合蛋白以及c-di-AMP与宿主细胞互作过程中的相关受体蛋白等几方面进行综述。     

环二腺苷酸(c-di-AMP)——细菌的一种新型第二信使

环二腺苷酸(cyclic diadenosine monophosphate,c-di-AMP)是在细菌中新发现的一种第二信使分子,其参与调节多种生理功能,包括细菌的生长、细胞壁的代谢平衡以及细菌的致病力等。c-di-AMP除了在细菌中发挥作用外,它还可作为第二信使分子被真核宿主识别,激活先天性免疫应答。细菌细胞内c-di-AMP的代谢受二腺苷酸环化酶(diadenylate cyclase,DAC)和磷酸二酯酶(phosphodiesterase,PDE)的调控。本文综述了c-di-AMP的代谢途径、调控机制、受体蛋白、生物学功能以及未来的研究方向和应用前景。     

c-di-AMP在细菌感染与免疫中的作用

环二腺苷酸(Cyclic diadenosine monophosphate,c-di-AMP)是细菌中广泛存在的第二信号分子。c-di-AMP在细菌中的代谢受二腺苷酸环化酶(Diadenylatecyclase, DAC)和磷酸二酯酶(Phosphodiesterase,PDE)的精密调控。c-di-AMP不仅调节细菌生长、细胞壁稳态、离子转运等多种生理过程,而且能够被真核宿主胞内多种感应子/受体蛋白识别,从而调控抗感染免疫。细菌c-di-AMP参与调控宿主I型干扰素应答、NF-κB信号通路活性、自噬以及炎症小体应答等固有免疫应答。此外,c-di-AMP作为黏膜佐剂可诱导宿主适应性免疫。c-di-AMP被认为是一种新发现的病原体相关的分子模式(Pathogen associated molecular pattern,PAMP),已成为细菌疫苗和药物研究中的新靶点。     

植物乳杆菌环二腺苷酸合成酶的克隆表达与活性分析

【背景】环二腺苷酸(Cyclic Diadenosine Monophosphate,c-di-AMP)是一种主要存在于革兰氏阳性菌中的重要的第二信使分子,其参与细菌的生长、生存、抗逆性等多种生理活动,但目前关于乳酸菌中c-di-AMP的研究甚少。【目的】从植物乳杆菌(Lactobacillus plantarum)中克隆得到c-di-AMP合成酶基因,在大肠杆菌中进行可溶性表达并研究其体外活性。【方法】使用高效液相色谱以及质谱分析对植物乳杆菌-YRA7细胞内容物中的c-di-AMP进行检测;以植物乳杆菌-YRA7基因组DNA为模板,克隆c-di-AMP合成酶基因(lpDacA),构建重组表达载体pET-28a-lpDacA并在大肠杆菌BL21(DE3)中诱导表达,通过Ni-NTA亲和层析纯化后进行体外活性研究。【结果】在植物乳杆菌中检测到c-di-AMP分子;成功构建了c-di-AMP合成酶基因的重组表达质粒,该重组蛋白在大肠杆菌中得到可溶性表达;体外活性分析显示,该重组蛋白可以催化ATP生成c-di-AMP,其活性依赖于二价阳离子的存在,在Mg~(2+)存在以及碱性环境下活性较强;RHR是合成酶活性的关键基序,是环二腺苷酸合成酶与ATP的结合位点。【结论】植物乳杆菌c-di-AMP合成酶的克隆表达及活性分析为进一步研究c-di-AMP在植物乳杆菌中的作用奠定了基础。     

c-di-AMP调控细菌生物被膜的形成

细菌生物被膜是细菌持续性致病的重要机制。研究细菌生物被膜的形成和发展可为顽固性细菌感染防治提供新的思路与策略。环二腺苷酸c-di-AMP(Cyclic diadenosine monophosphate)是继c-di-GMP之后在细菌中新发现的一种核苷酸第二信使分子。研究发现,c-di-AMP参与调节细菌多种生理功能,包括细菌生长代谢、生物被膜形成、细胞壁的合成以及细菌毒力因子等。本文综述了c-di-AMP参与调控细菌生物被膜形成的不同方式及其分子机制。鉴于c-di-AMP在调控细菌生物被膜中的重要性,其可作为抗细菌生物被膜感染新药研发的潜在靶点。     

第二信使分子c-di-AMP调控细菌中钾离子转运的机制

钾离子(K~+)是维持生命体存活的必需元素。原核生物进化出一系列K~+转运系统,如Kdp系统﹑Ktr系统和Trk系统等,来维持胞内相对恒定的K~+浓度。环二腺苷酸单磷酸(cyclic diadenosine monophosphate,c-di-AMP)是新发现的第二信使分子,可以与K~+转运系统中的KdpD、KtrA和TrkA结合。当胞内c-di-AMP浓度高时,c-di-AMP会与K~+转运蛋白结合,降低其转运活性。c-di-AMP的靶标除蛋白质外,还有RNA元件,即c-di-AMP的核糖开关。高浓度的c-di-AMP与其核糖开关结合后,可抑制下游K~+转运蛋白编码基因,如kdp、ktr和trk操纵子以及kup基因的转录,从而调控K~+的转运。总之,胞内高浓度的c-di-AMP抑制细菌对K~+的吸收。c-di-AMP调控K~+转运机制的研究,不仅丰富了K~+转运的调控方式,而且也扩大了c-di-AMP的调控范围,为细菌的利用与防治提供了新思路。     

鉴定cyclic di-GMP效应蛋白：高通量筛选策略与实验验证方法

环二鸟苷单磷酸(cyclic di-GMP或c-di-GMP)是细菌细胞中广泛存在的第二信使,调控细菌生物被膜发育、致病力、运动性、胞外多糖产生及细胞周期在内的诸多重要生理表型。c-di-GMP通过结合多种类型的效应子(包括核糖开关或效应蛋白)来发挥调控功能。由于c-di-GMP分子在构象上具有多变性,其结合的效应子同样具有多样性。新型效应蛋白的筛选、鉴定是当前细菌信号转导领域的研究热点和难点,也是解析c-di-GMP调控机制的首要环节。本文在阐述c-di-GMP结合不同类型的效应蛋白并调控细菌生物被膜发育的基础上,综述了目前筛选c-di-GMP效应蛋白的方法,包括遗传筛选、亲和色谱结合质谱鉴定、DRa CALA系统鉴定以及基于分子对接的预测等。同时,对验证c-di-GMP效应蛋白的技术,如等温微量热滴定、表面等离子共振、微量热泳动在内的多种验证方法进行了总结,对比了这些策略和方法在应用上的优、缺点,为在细菌及其真核宿主基因组水平鉴定c-di-GMP效应蛋白的研究提供参考。     

c-di-GMP对细菌胞外多糖合成与运输的调控

环二鸟苷酸(Cyclic diguanylate,c-di-GMP)的发现已有29年。作为重要的细菌第二信使,c-di-GMP可参与调节细菌生物膜的合成与降解、运动、毒性、细胞周期、细胞分化等多种活动过程。胞外多糖(EPS)是细菌生物膜的主要组成成分,其合成和运输主要受c-di-GMP调控。目前细菌胞外多糖在医药、食品、农业、工业和环保等多个领域均有广泛的应用,其相关研究备受关注。本文旨在论述细菌中c-di-GMP合成与降解的调控,部分合成酶(Diguanylate cyclase,DGC)与降解酶(Phosphodiesterase,PDE)及其受体分子(Receptor)晶体结构等研究成果,并结合我们研究农杆菌ATCC31749中c-di-GMP对可德胶合成调控的基础上,重点阐述c-di-GMP对纤维素、藻酸盐、多聚氮乙酰葡萄糖胺(PNAG)和可德胶等EPS合成与运输的调控机制。     

cGAMP：一种新的哺乳动物第二信使

在细菌中已发现多种环二核苷酸如c-di-GMP、c-di-AMP和cGAMP等可作第二信使,但在哺乳动物中一直未鉴定成功。最新研究发现cGAMP在哺乳动物天然免疫信号通路中也发挥着第二信使作用。在DNA结合条件下cGAMP可由cGAMP合成酶（cGAS）催化生成,随后结合干扰素基因激活蛋白（STING）而诱导Ⅰ型干扰素依赖的天然免疫。这些研究为天然免疫信号通路提供了新的视野,有益于免疫治疗药物的开发。     

环二鸟苷酸信号分子抑制剂的研究进展

环二鸟苷酸(Bis-(3′-5′)cyclic diguanylic acid,c-di-GMP)是细菌所特有的一类核酸类第二信使,参与并调节细菌多种生理功能,包括细胞分化、生物被膜的形成以及致病因子的产生等。阻断c-di-GMP信号的传导对于发展新型抗菌药物具有重要的意义。现有研究结果表明,基于c-di-GMP调控的信号通路开发新型抗菌药物具有3类潜在的靶点,分别是c-di-GMP合成酶(DGCs)、c-di-GMP降解酶(PDEs)以及c-di-GMP受体。文中根据上述3类关键靶点,介绍了相关小分子抑制剂的研究进展,并展望了c-di-GMP信号分子抑制剂的发展方向。     

Radiation-sensitive Gene A (RadA) Targets DisA,DNA Integrity Scanning Protein A,to Negatively Affect Cyclic Di-AMP Synthesis Activity in Mycobacterium smegmatis

Cyclic di-AMP has been recognized as a ubiquitous second messenger involved in the regulation of bacterial signal transduction. However, little is known about the control of its synthesis and its physiological role in bacteria. In this study, we report a novel mechanism of control of c-di-AMP synthesis and its effects on bacterial growth in Mycobacterium smegmatis. We identified a DisA homolog in M. smegmatis, MsDisA, as an enzyme involved in c-di-AMP synthesis. Furthermore, MsRadA, a RadA homolog in M. smegmatis was found to act as an antagonist of the MsDisA protein. MsRadA can physically interact with MsDisA and inhibit the c-di-AMP synthesis activity of MsDisA. Overexpression of MsdisA in M. smegmatis led to cell expansion and bacterial aggregation as well as loss of motility. However, co-expression of MsradA and MsdisA rescued these abnormal phenotypes. Furthermore, we show that the interaction between RadA and DisA and its role in inhibiting c-di-AMP synthesis may be conserved in bacteria. Our findings enhance our understanding of the control of c-di-AMP synthesis and its physiological roles in bacteria.     

Structural and Biochemical Insight into the Mechanism of Rv2837c from Mycobacterium tuberculosis as a c-di-NMP Phosphodiesterase

The intracellular infections of Mycobacterium tuberculosis, which is the causative agent of tuberculosis, are regulated by many cyclic dinucleotide signaling. Rv2837c from M. tuberculosis is a soluble, stand-alone DHH-DHHA1 domain phosphodiesterase that down-regulates c-di-AMP through catalytic degradation and plays an important role in M. tuberculosis infections. Here, we report the crystal structure of Rv2837c (2.0 Å), and its complex with hydrolysis intermediate 5′-pApA (2.35 Å). Our structures indicate that both DHH and DHHA1 domains are essential for c-di-AMP degradation. Further structural analysis shows that Rv2837c does not distinguish adenine from guanine, which explains why Rv2837c hydrolyzes all linear dinucleotides with almost the same efficiency. We observed that Rv2837c degraded other c-di-NMPs at a lower rate than it did on c-di-AMP. Nevertheless, our data also showed that Rv2837c significantly decreases concentrations of both c-di-AMP and c-di-GMP in vivo. Our results suggest that beside its major role in c-di-AMP degradation Rv2837c could also regulate c-di-GMP signaling pathways in bacterial cell.     

RIG-I Detects Triphosphorylated RNA of Listeria monocytogenes during Infection in Non-Immune Cells

The innate immune system senses pathogens by pattern recognition receptors in different cell compartments. In the endosome, bacteria are generally recognized by TLRs; facultative intracellular bacteria such as Listeria, however, can escape the endosome. Once in the cytosol, they become accessible to cytosolic pattern recognition receptors, which recognize components of the bacterial cell wall, metabolites or bacterial nucleic acids and initiate an immune response in the host cell. Current knowledge has been focused on the type I IFN response to Listeria DNA or Listeria-derived second messenger c-di-AMP via the signaling adaptor STING. Our study focused on the recognition of Listeria RNA in the cytosol. With the aid of a novel labeling technique, we have been able to visualize immediate cytosolic delivery of Listeria RNA upon infection. Infection with Listeria as well as transfection of bacterial RNA induced a type-I-IFN response in human monocytes, epithelial cells or hepatocytes. However, in contrast to monocytes, the type-I-IFN response of epithelial cells and hepatocytes was not triggered by bacterial DNA, indicating a STING-independent Listeria recognition pathway. RIG-I and MAVS knock-down resulted in abolishment of the IFN response in epithelial cells, but the IFN response in monocytic cells remained unaffected. By contrast, knockdown of STING in monocytic cells reduced cytosolic Listeria-mediated type-I-IFN induction. Our results show that detection of Listeria RNA by RIG-I represents a non-redundant cytosolic immunorecognition pathway in non-immune cells lacking a functional STING dependent signaling pathway.     

c-di-AMP is a new second messenger in Staphylococcus aureus with a role in controlling cell size and envelope stress

The cell wall is a vital and multi-functional part of bacterial cells. For Staphylococcus aureus, an important human bacterial pathogen, surface proteins and cell wall polymers are essential for adhesion, colonization and during the infection process. One such cell wall polymer, lipoteichoic acid (LTA), is crucial for normal bacterial growth and cell division. Upon depletion of this polymer bacteria increase in size and a misplacement of division septa and eventual cell lysis is observed. In this work, we describe the isolation and characterization of LTA-deficient S. aureus suppressor strains that regained the ability to grow almost normally in the absence of this cell wall polymer. Using a whole genome sequencing approach, compensatory mutations were identified and revealed that mutations within one gene, gdpP (GGDEF domain protein containing phosphodiesterase), allow both laboratory and clinical isolates of S. aureus to grow without LTA. It was determined that GdpP has phosphodiesterase activity in vitro and uses the cyclic dinucleotide c-di-AMP as a substrate. Furthermore, we show for the first time that c-di-AMP is produced in S. aureus presumably by the S. aureus DacA protein, which has diadenylate cyclase activity. We also demonstrate that GdpP functions in vivo as a c-di-AMP-specific phosphodiesterase, as intracellular c-di-AMP levels increase drastically in gdpP deletion strains and in an LTA-deficient suppressor strain. An increased amount of cross-linked peptidoglycan was observed in the gdpP mutant strain, a cell wall alteration that could help bacteria compensate for the lack of LTA. Lastly, microscopic analysis of wild-type and gdpP mutant strains revealed a 13-22% reduction in the cell size of bacteria with increased c-di-AMP levels. Taken together, these data suggest a function for this novel secondary messenger in controlling cell size of S. aureus and in helping bacteria to cope with extreme membrane and cell wall stress.     

Intracellular Concentrations of Borrelia burgdorferi Cyclic Di-AMP Are Not Changed by Altered Expression of the CdaA Synthase

The second messenger nucleotide cyclic diadenylate monophosphate (c-di-AMP) has been identified in several species of Gram positive bacteria and Chlamydia trachomatis. This molecule has been associated with bacterial cell division, cell wall biosynthesis and phosphate metabolism, and with induction of type I interferon responses by host cells. We demonstrate that B. burgdorferi produces a c-di-AMP synthase, which we designated CdaA. Both CdaA and c-di-AMP levels are very low in cultured B. burgdorferi, and no conditions were identified under which cdaA mRNA was differentially expressed. A mutant B. burgdorferi was produced that expresses high levels of CdaA, yet steady state borrelial c-di-AMP levels did not change, apparently due to degradation by the native DhhP phosphodiesterase. The function(s) of c-di-AMP in the Lyme disease spirochete remains enigmatic.     

Functional Analysis of a c-di-AMP-specific Phosphodiesterase MsPDE from Mycobacterium smegmatis

Cyclic di‑AMP (c-di-AMP) is a second signaling molecule involved in the regulation of bacterial physiological processes and interaction between pathogen and host. However, the regulatory network mediated by c-di-AMP in Mycobacterium remains obscure. In M. smegmatis, a diadenylate cyclase (DAC) was reported recently, but there is still no investigation on c-di-AMP phosphodiesterase (PDE). Here, we provide a systematic study on signaling mechanism of c-di-AMP PDE in M. smegmatis. Based on our enzymatic analysis, MsPDE (MSMEG_2630), which contained a DHH-DHHA1 domain, displayed a 200-fold higher hydrolytic efficiency (k_cat/K_m) to c-di-AMP than to c-di-GMP. MsPDE was capable of converting c-di-AMP to pApA and AMP, and hydrolyzing pApA to AMP. Site-directed mutations in DHH and DHHA1 revealed that DHH domain was critical for the phosphodiesterase activity. To explore the regulatory role of c-di-AMP in vivo, we constructed the mspde mutant (Δmspde) and found that deficiency of MsPDE significantly enhanced intracellular C₁₂-C₂₀ fatty acid accumulation. Deficiency of DAC in many bacteria results in cell death. However, we acquired the M. smegmatis strain with DAC gene disrupted (ΔmsdisA) by homologous recombination approach. Deletion of msdisA reduced bacterial C₁₂-C₂₀ fatty acids production but scarcely affected bacterial survival. We also provided evidences that superfluous c-di-AMP in M. smegmatis could lead to abnormal colonial morphology. Collectively, our results indicate that MsPDE is a functional c-di-AMP-specific phosphodiesterase both in vitro and in vivo. Our study also expands the regulatory network mediated by c-di-AMP in M. smegmatis.     

Modulation of phagocyte apoptosis by bacterial pathogens

Phagocytic leukocytes such as neutrophils and macrophages are essential for the innate immune response against invading bacteria. Binding and ingestion of bacteria by these host cells triggers potent anti-microbial activity, including production of reactive oxygen species. Although phagocytes are highly adept at destroying bacteria, modulation of leukocyte apoptosis or cell death by bacteria has emerged as a mechanism of pathogenesis. Whereas induction of macrophage apoptosis by pathogens may adversely affect the host immune response to infection, acceleration of neutrophil apoptosis following phagocytic interaction with bacteria appears essential for the resolution of infection. This idea is supported by the finding that some bacterial pathogens alter normal phagocytosis-induced neutrophil apoptosis to survive and cause disease. This review summarizes what is currently known about modulation of phagocyte apoptosis by bacteria and describes a paradigm whereby bacteria-induced neutrophil apoptosis plays a role in the resolution of infection.     

Sensing of bacteria: NOD a lonely job

Recognition of bacteria by the vertebrate innate immune system relies on detection of invariant molecules by specialized receptors. The view is emerging that activation of both Toll-like receptors (TLRs) and Nod-like receptors (NLRs) by different bacterial agonists is important in order to mount an inflammatory response in the host. Priming of cells with peptidoglycan and products that are sensed by cytosolic-localized members of the NLR family have a synergistic effect on TLR signalling and vice versa. Currently, the underlying molecular mechanisms of this cross-talk between NLR and TLR signalling are beginning to emerge. These reveal that the two sensing-systems are non-redundant in bacterial recognition and that their cross-talk plays an important role in immunological homeostasis.