When It Hurts (and Helps) to Try: The Role of Effort in Language Learning

Compared to children, adults are bad at learning language. This is counterintuitive; adults outperform children on most measures of cognition, especially those that involve effort (which continue to mature into early adulthood). The present study asks whether these mature effortful abilities interfere with language learning in adults and further, whether interference occurs equally for aspects of language that adults are good (word-segmentation) versus bad (grammar) at learning. Learners were exposed to an artificial language comprised of statistically defined words that belong to phonologically defined categories (grammar). Exposure occurred under passive or effortful conditions. Passive learners were told to listen while effortful learners were instructed to try to 1) learn the words, 2) learn the categories, or 3) learn the category-order. Effortful learners showed an advantage for learning words while passive learners showed an advantage for learning the categories. Effort can therefore hurt the learning of categories.     

Individuality in Problem Solving: String Pulling in Two Carduelis Species (Aves: Passeriformes)

The research reported here was designed to study the individual peculiarities of birds in solving a problem. Goldfinches Carduelis carduelis and siskins C. spinus were tested with the string‐pulling task: sitting on a perch from which a small food container is suspended by a string the test bird had to lift the container, using the bill to pull the string stepwise up and a foot to hold it, and repeat that until they could reach the food. Fifty‐two goldfinches and 29 siskins raised under controlled conditions were tested individually. Three groups became apparent: ‘inventors’ (23% of goldfinches; 62% of siskins) solved the problem by themselves; ‘imitators’ (25% of goldfinches; 10% of siskins) succeeded after seeing a performing conspecific; ‘duffers’ (52% of goldfinches, 28% of siskins) did not succeed either way. The species – but not the sexes – differed significantly in string‐pulling ability. The results of our experiments indicate that string pulling is an acquired combination of innate behaviour elements. An individual's string‐pulling competence may depend on prior experience of handling branchlets, on trial‐and‐error learning and on social learning (emulation). However, some individuals succeeded without these facilitating factors, while others did not succeed at all despite all of them present. Although functionally and motivationally related to feeding, the learned string pulling is often shown as a playful activity without an obvious reward.     

On the Speed of Learning a Foreign Language Through Sleep-Teaching (A Self Experiment)

The broad discussion of the possibility of learning a foreign language while asleep shows the fruitful prospects of this method.     

Drinking Money and Pulling Women: Mobile Phone Talk,Gender, and Agency in Vanuatu

This paper examines aspects of gendered discourse around mobile phones in Vanuatu, focusing especially on the talk of high-ranking men from the northern Raga-speaking region of Pentecost Island. Rather than being restricted to the technologies or their direct capacities alone, it is argued that the local reception of new technologies such as mobile phones should be contextualised in terms of broader dialogues of change, and should also take into account the visual and discursive expressions of culture that accompanies them, including in the form of marketing. Examination of the ‘impact’ of such new technologies should also include taking account of broader local meanings and messages that become associated with them. As the ethnography presented here suggests, while mobile phones themselves certainly provide a useful tool for furthering positive social change, such as in the empowerment of women, the meanings and narratives that surround them may by marked contrast entail more negative entrenchments of unequal relations of power.     

Novelty,Challenge, and Practice: The Impact of Intensive Language Learning on Attentional Functions

We investigated the impact of a short intensive language course on attentional functions.We examined 33 participants of a one-week Scottish Gaelic course and compared them to 34 controls: 16 active controls who participated in courses of comparable duration and intensity but not involving foreign language learning and 18 passive controls who followed their usual routines. Participants completed auditory tests of attentional inhibition and switching. There was no difference between the groups in any measures at the beginning of the course. At the end of the course, a significant improvement in attention switching was observed in the language group (p < .001) but not the control group (p = .127), independent of the age of participants (18–78 years). Half of the language participants (n = 17) were retested nine months after their course. All those who practiced Gaelic 5 hours or more per week improved from their baseline performance. In contrast, those who practiced 4 hours or fewer showed an inconsistent pattern: some improved while others stayed the same or deteriorated. Our results suggest that even a short period of intensive language learning can modulate attentional functions and that all age groups can benefit from this effect. Moreover, these short-term effects can be maintained through continuous practice.     

An Investigation into the Cognition Behind Spontaneous String Pulling in New Caledonian Crows

The ability of some bird species to pull up meat hung on a string is a famous example of spontaneous animal problem solving. The “insight” hypothesis claims that this complex behaviour is based on cognitive abilities such as mental scenario building and imagination. An operant conditioning account, in contrast, would claim that this spontaneity is due to each action in string pulling being reinforced by the meat moving closer and remaining closer to the bird on the perch. We presented experienced and naïve New Caledonian crows with a novel, visually restricted string-pulling problem that reduced the quality of visual feedback during string pulling. Experienced crows solved this problem with reduced efficiency and increased errors compared to their performance in standard string pulling. Naïve crows either failed or solved the problem by trial and error learning. However, when visual feedback was available via a mirror mounted next to the apparatus, two naïve crows were able to perform at the same level as the experienced group. Our results raise the possibility that spontaneous string pulling in New Caledonian crows may not be based on insight but on operant conditioning mediated by a perceptual-motor feedback cycle.     

Assisted reproductive technology (ART) in humans: facts and uncertainties

Since the first in vitro fertilization (IVF) in human, the number of patients using Assisted Reproductive Technologies (ART) has increased tremendously. ART technologies have increased in number and their spectrum has also widened. The first IVF babies are now more than 20 years old. All the retrospective analyses have demonstrated that the obstetrical and pediatrical impact has not really affected single births. The main problems observed occur with multiple pregnancies, including high costs for the couples and for society. The decrease in the number of embryos transferred has improved the situation and moreover does not impair the final results. IntraCytoplasmic Sperm Injection (ICSI) is a more debatable and questionable technique with a real negative genetic impact. The main problem is chromosome abnormalities more specifically related to the sex chromosomes. The question of a systematic genetic work-up on the patients entering ICSI programs is discussed. No negative impact of cryopreservation has been demonstrated even though some controversy arises from time to time. Pre-implantation Genetic Diagnosis (PGD) is now a interesting tool for patients carrying genetic defects. Blastocyst biopsy now has a future role in reproductive medicine. Gender selection through sperm sorting is also now a reality. As with the other developing bio-technologies related to reproduction, there are ethical questions. The decisions concerning these technologies do not belong solely to scientists but are rather a matter for society to decide.     

The Composition of the Broad Bean Seed (Vicia faba)

The composition of the seed of the Broad Bean (Vicia faba) hasbeen investigated and the results of alternative analyticalmethods compared. The seeds used in the present work were higherin nitrogen and phosphorus and lower in structural carbohydrate,magnesium and calcium than the seeds used in previous Germananalytical work. Such differences are attributed to differenceof variety and of conditions of maturation of the seed.     

Learning in the fast lane: new insights into neuroplasticity

The timescale of structural remodeling that accompanies functional neuroplasticity is largely unknown. Although structural remodeling of human brain tissue is known to occur following long-term (weeks) acquisition of a new skill, little is known as to what happens structurally when the brain needs to adopt new sequences of procedural rules or memorize?a cascade of events within minutes or hours. Using diffusion tensor imaging (DTI), an MRI-based framework, we examined subjects before and after a spatial learning and memory task. Microstructural changes (as reflected by DTI measures) of limbic system structures (hippocampus and parahippocampus) were significant after only 2?hr of training. This observation was also found in a supporting rat study. We conclude that cellular rearrangement of neural tissue can be detected by DTI, and that this modality may allow neuroplasticity to be localized over short timescales.     

Broad infectivity of Leidynema appendiculatum (Nematoda: Oxyurida: Thelastomatidae) parasite of the smokybrown cockroach Periplaneta fuliginosa (Blattodea: Blattidae)

Host specificity of parasites is important for the understanding of evolutionary strategies of parasitism that would be a basis of predictions of the disease expansion when parasitized hosts invade new environments. The nematode order Oxyurida is an interesting parasite group for studying the evolution of parasitism as it includes parasites of both invertebrates and vertebrates. In our survey, we found that the smokybrown cockroach Periplaneta fuliginosa was primarily infected with only one nematode species Leidynema appendiculatum. In two cases, L. appendiculatum was isolated from two additional cockroach species Pycnoscelus surinamensis, sold in Japan as a reptile food, and Blatta lateralis, captured in the field and cultured in the laboratory. Inoculation of L. appendiculatum into three additional cockroach species P. japonica, Blattella nipponica, and P. surinamensis also resulted in parasitism. Infection prevalence was high, and timing of postembryonic development from hatched nematode larva to mature adult in these hosts was identical with that in P. fuliginosa. While ecological interactions strongly determine the host range, such broad infectivity is still possible in this parasitic nematode.     

Mobile Phone Mast Effects on Common Frog (Rana temporaria) Tadpoles: The City Turned into a Laboratory

An experiment has been made exposing eggs and tadpoles of the common frog (Rana temporaria) to electromagnetic radiation from several mobile (cell) phone antennae located at a distance of 140 meters. The experiment lasted two months, from the egg phase until an advanced phase of tadpole prior to metamorphosis. Measurements of electric field intensity (radiofrequencies and microwaves) in V/m obtained with three different devices were 1.8 to 3.5?V/m. In the exposed group (n?=?70), low coordination of movements, an asynchronous growth, resulting in both big and small tadpoles, and a high mortality (90%) was observed. Regarding the control group (n?=?70) under the same conditions but inside a Faraday cage, the coordination of movements was normal, the development was synchronous, and a mortality of 4.2% was obtained. These results indicate that radiation emitted by phone masts in a real situation may affect the development and may cause an increase in mortality of exposed tadpoles. This research may have huge implications for the natural world, which is now exposed to high microwave radiation levels from a multitude of phone masts.     

Bee diversity (Hymenoptera: Apoidea) visiting Broad Bean (Vicia faba L.) flowers in Egypt

Different bee flower visitors were observed during the flowering seasons of Broad Bean in Ismailia, eastern Egypt, the Nile Delta and Alexandria, western Egypt. Eight major bee visitors were observed: Andrena ovatula (Kirby, 1802), Andrena sp. (Andrenidae), Chalicodoma siculum (Rossi, 1792) (Megachilidae), Colletes lacunatus Dours, 1872 (Colletidae), Apis mellifera Linnaeus, 1758, Anthophora hispanica (Fabricius, 1787), A. aegyptiaca (Dalla Torre and Friese, 1895) and Xylocopa pubescens (Spinola, 1838) (Apidae). Anthophora hispanica and A. aegyptiaca as well as Chalicodoma siculum had their peak flying period in the middle of the flowering season of the Broad Bean, while Xylocopa pubescens and Andrena sp. had their peak period in the second half of the flowering period.     

Learning the deformation mechanism of poly(vinylidine fluoride-co-chlorotrifluoroethylene): an insight into strain-induced microstructure evolution via molecular dynamics

Learning the micro-mechanisms of fluorinated polymers during mechanical response is more difficult than that of common polymers due to the unique intrinsic characteristics of the fluorine element. In this paper, we applied molecular dynamics simulations to study deformation mechanisms of poly(vinylidine fluoride-co-chlorotrifluoroethylene) during uniaxial tension. We analyzed the variations of individual energy components and structural distribution curves versus strain in addition to the commonly used stress-strain curves and microstructure evolutions during stretching. The elastic limit is ??=?0.02, ??=?0.06 is the yield point, ??=?0.24 is the termination of the softening, necking occurs at 0.24?<???<?0.5, strain hardening occurs at 0.5?<???<?2.6, and ??=?2.6 is the damage or brake point. The elastic behavior of the material does not rely on strain rate, the obvious effect of strain rate can be seen at the yield region and strain softening region, and the stress values are not influenced by strain rates at the softening and hardening stages. Overall, total potential energy is mainly correlated with non-bonded energy, and the proportion of ΔE_coul overwhelms all the others. The energy components are ordered: ΔE_coul?>?ΔE_vdwl >?>?ΔE_angle?>?ΔE_dihed?>?ΔE_bond. The chain conformation at yield point is almost unchanged compared with the pre-stretching conformation. The chain conformations at the end of strain softening changes more obviously than that at yield point. The molecular chains maintain random coil structure before strain hardening, and switch into a stretch chain conformation gradually during strain hardening. The maximum change in bond angle during the stretching process is F-C-H, the largest change in bond length is the C-Cl bond, and the largest change in dihedral angle is H-C-C-H. The change of non-bonded interaction in the poly(VDF-co-CTFE) system is much larger than the bonding interaction, and the main factor affecting bonding interaction is the change of angles.

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Graphical abstract Poly(vinylidine fluoride-co-chlorotrifluoroethylene) during tension?

     

Language comprehension in the balance: the robustness of the action-compatibility effect (ACE)

How does language comprehension interact with motor activity? We investigated the conditions under which comprehending an action sentence affects people''s balance. We performed two experiments to assess whether sentences describing forward or backward movement modulate the lateral movements made by subjects who made sensibility judgments about the sentences. In one experiment subjects were standing on a balance board and in the other they were seated on a balance board that was mounted on a chair. This allowed us to investigate whether the action compatibility effect (ACE) is robust and persists in the face of salient incompatibilities between sentence content and subject movement. Growth-curve analysis of the movement trajectories produced by the subjects in response to the sentences suggests that the ACE is indeed robust. Sentence content influenced movement trajectory despite salient inconsistencies between implied and actual movement. These results are interpreted in the context of the current discussion of embodied, or grounded, language comprehension and meaning representation.