Absence of MyoD Increases Donor Myoblast Migration into Host Muscle

Donor myoblast migration is a major limiting factor in the success of myoblast transfer therapy, a potential treatment for Duchenne muscular dystrophy. A possible strategy to promote the migration of donor myoblasts into host muscle is to enhance their proliferation and delay their fusion, two properties that are major characteristics of myoblasts in regenerating skeletal muscle in MyoD null (-/-) mice. Here we investigate whether the migration of MyoD (-/-) donor myoblasts into host muscle is enhanced in vivo. Sliced muscle grafts from male MyoD (-/-) or normal control (Balb/c) mice were transplanted into the muscles of female normal (Balb/c) host mice. Muscles were sampled at 1, 3, and 12 weeks after grafting, and the fate of male donor myoblasts within female host muscles determined by in situ hybridization with the mouse Y-chromosome-specific Y-1 probe. MyoD (-/-) donor myoblasts migrated into host muscle continuously over 1, 3, and 12 weeks after grafting, in contrast with Balb/c donor myoblasts, whose overall numbers and migratory distances did not increase significantly after 1 week. These results strongly support a role for elevated donor myoblast proliferation and/or their delayed fusion in enhancing migration into host muscle in vivo, and endorse the use of either genetically engineered donor myoblasts, or the administration of exogenous myoblast mitogens to improve donor myoblast migration in myoblast transfer therapy.     

Isolation,Culture, and Transplantation of Muscle Satellite Cells

Muscle satellite cells are a stem cell population required for postnatal skeletal muscle development and regeneration, accounting for 2-5% of sublaminal nuclei in muscle fibers. In adult muscle, satellite cells are normally mitotically quiescent. Following injury, however, satellite cells initiate cellular proliferation to produce myoblasts, their progenies, to mediate the regeneration of muscle. Transplantation of satellite cell-derived myoblasts has been widely studied as a possible therapy for several regenerative diseases including muscular dystrophy, heart failure, and urological dysfunction. Myoblast transplantation into dystrophic skeletal muscle, infarcted heart, and dysfunctioning urinary ducts has shown that engrafted myoblasts can differentiate into muscle fibers in the host tissues and display partial functional improvement in these diseases. Therefore, the development of efficient purification methods of quiescent satellite cells from skeletal muscle, as well as the establishment of satellite cell-derived myoblast cultures and transplantation methods for myoblasts, are essential for understanding the molecular mechanisms behind satellite cell self-renewal, activation, and differentiation. Additionally, the development of cell-based therapies for muscular dystrophy and other regenerative diseases are also dependent upon these factors.However, current prospective purification methods of quiescent satellite cells require the use of expensive fluorescence-activated cell sorting (FACS) machines. Here, we present a new method for the rapid, economical, and reliable purification of quiescent satellite cells from adult mouse skeletal muscle by enzymatic dissociation followed by magnetic-activated cell sorting (MACS). Following isolation of pure quiescent satellite cells, these cells can be cultured to obtain large numbers of myoblasts after several passages. These freshly isolated quiescent satellite cells or ex vivo expanded myoblasts can be transplanted into cardiotoxin (CTX)-induced regenerating mouse skeletal muscle to examine the contribution of donor-derived cells to regenerating muscle fibers, as well as to satellite cell compartments for the examination of self-renewal activities.     

Absence of Functional Leptin Receptor Isoforms in the POUND (Leprdb/lb) Mouse Is Associated with Muscle Atrophy and Altered Myoblast Proliferation and Differentiation

Objective

Leptin receptors are abundant in human skeletal muscle, but the role of leptin in muscle growth, development and aging is not well understood. Here we utilized a novel mouse model lacking all functional leptin receptor isoforms (POUND mouse, Lepr^db/lb) to determine the role of leptin in skeletal muscle.

Methods and Findings

Skeletal muscle mass and fiber diameters were examined in POUND mice, and primary myoblast cultures were used to determine the effects of altered leptin signaling on myoblast proliferation and differentiation. ELISA assays, integrated pathway analysis of mRNA microarrays, and reverse phase protein analysis were performed to identify signaling pathways impacted by leptin receptor deficiency. Results show that skeletal muscle mass and fiber diameter are reduced 30–40% in POUND mice relative to wild-type controls. Primary myoblast cultures demonstrate decreased proliferation and decreased expression of both MyoD and myogenin in POUND mice compared to normal mice. Leptin treatment increased proliferation in primary myoblasts from muscles of both adult (12 months) and aged (24 months) wild-type mice, and leptin increased expression of MyoD and myogenin in aged primary myoblasts. ELISA assays and protein arrays revealed altered expression of molecules associated with the IGF-1/Akt and MAPK/MEK signaling pathways in muscle from the hindlimbs of mice lacking functional leptin receptors.

Conclusion

These data support the hypothesis that the adipokine leptin is a key factor important for the regulation of skeletal muscle mass, and that leptin can act directly on its receptors in peripheral tissues to regulate cell proliferation and differentiation.     

Hypoxia promotes satellite cell self-renewal and enhances the efficiency of myoblast transplantation

Microenvironmental oxygen (O(2)) regulates stem cell activity, and a hypoxic niche with low oxygen levels has been reported in multiple stem cell types. Satellite cells are muscle-resident stem cells that maintain the homeostasis and mediate the regeneration of skeletal muscles. We demonstrate here that hypoxic culture conditions favor the quiescence of satellite cell-derived primary myoblasts by upregulating Pax7, a key regulator of satellite cell self-renewal, and downregulating MyoD and myogenin. During myoblast division, hypoxia promotes asymmetric self-renewal divisions and inhibits asymmetric differentiation divisions without affecting the overall rate of proliferation. Mechanistic studies reveal that hypoxia activates the Notch signaling pathway, which subsequently represses the expression of miR-1 and miR-206 through canonical Hes/Hey proteins, leading to increased levels of Pax7. More importantly, hypoxia conditioning enhances the efficiency of myoblast transplantation and the self-renewal of implanted cells. Given the robust effects of hypoxia on maintaining the quiescence and promoting the self-renewal of cultured myoblasts, we predict that oxygen levels in the satellite cell niche play a central role in precisely balancing quiescence versus activation, and self-renewal versus differentiation, in muscle stem cells in vivo.     

hHGF overexpression in myoblast sheets enhances their angiogenic potential in rat chronic heart failure

After severe myocardial infarction (MI), heart failure results from ischemia, fibrosis, and remodeling. A promising therapy to enhance cardiac function and induce therapeutic angiogenesis via a paracrine mechanism in MI is myoblast sheet transplantation. We hypothesized that in a rat model of MI-induced chronic heart failure, this therapy could be further improved by overexpression of the antiapoptotic, antifibrotic, and proangiogenic hepatocyte growth factor (HGF) in the myoblast sheets. We studied the ability of wild type (L6-WT) and human HGF-expressing (L6-HGF) L6 myoblast sheet-derived paracrine factors to stimulate cardiomyocyte, endothelial cell, or smooth muscle cell migration in culture. Further, we studied the autocrine effect of hHGF-expression on myoblast gene expression profiles by use of microarray analysis. We induced MI in Wistar rats by left anterior descending coronary artery (LAD) ligation and allowed heart failure to develop for 4 weeks. Thereafter, we administered L6-WT (n = 15) or L6-HGF (n = 16) myoblast sheet therapy. Control rats (n = 13) underwent LAD ligation and rethoracotomy without therapy, and five rats underwent a sham operation in both surgeries. We evaluated cardiac function with echocardiography at 2 and 4 weeks after therapy, and analyzed cardiac angiogenesis and left ventricular architecture from histological sections at 4 weeks. Paracrine mediators from L6-HGF myoblast sheets effectively induced migration of cardiac endothelial and smooth muscle cells but not cardiomyocytes. Microarray data revealed that hHGF-expression modulated myoblast gene expression. In vivo, L6-HGF sheet therapy effectively stimulated angiogenesis in the infarcted and non-infarcted areas. Both L6-WT and L6-HGF therapies enhanced cardiac function and inhibited remodeling in a similar fashion. In conclusion, L6-HGF therapy effectively induced angiogenesis in the chronically failing heart. Cardiac function, however, was not further enhanced by hHGF expression.     

Constitutive Notch activation upregulates Pax7 and promotes the self-renewal of skeletal muscle satellite cells

Notch signaling is a conserved cell fate regulator during development and postnatal tissue regeneration. Using skeletal muscle satellite cells as a model and through myogenic cell lineage-specific NICD(OE) (overexpression of constitutively activated Notch 1 intracellular domain), here we investigate how Notch signaling regulates the cell fate choice of muscle stem cells. We show that in addition to inhibiting MyoD and myogenic differentiation, NICD(OE) upregulates Pax7 and promotes the self-renewal of satellite cell-derived primary myoblasts in culture. Using MyoD(-/-) myoblasts, we further show that NICD(OE) upregulates Pax7 independently of MyoD inhibition. In striking contrast to previous observations, NICD(OE) also inhibits S-phase entry and Ki67 expression and thus reduces the proliferation of primary myoblasts. Overexpression of canonical Notch target genes mimics the inhibitory effects of NICD(OE) on MyoD and Ki67 but not the stimulatory effect on Pax7. Instead, NICD regulates Pax7 through interaction with RBP-Jκ, which binds to two consensus sites upstream of the Pax7 gene. Importantly, satellite cell-specific NICD(OE) results in impaired regeneration of skeletal muscles along with increased Pax7(+) mononuclear cells. Our results establish a role of Notch signaling in actively promoting the self-renewal of muscle stem cells through direct regulation of Pax7.     

Transplantation of elastin-secreting myoblast sheets improves cardiac function in infarcted rat heart

Myoblast sheet transplantation for cardiac failure is a promising therapy to enhance cardiac function via paracrine mechanism. However, their efficacies of treatment showed a gradual decline. The gene modification of the implanted myoblast is important in improving the long-term results of the treatment. Elastin fiber enhances the extensibility of the infarcted wall and can prevent left ventricular dilation. We therefore hypothesized that the elastin gene modification of the implanted myoblast could strengthen and maintain the long-term improvement effects of cardiac function. In this study, we evaluated long-term follow-up benefits of functional myoblast sheets that secrete elastin in an infarcted model. The animal models were divided into three groups: a group transplanted with nontransfected, wild-type, skeletal myoblast-type sheets (WT-rSkM); group transplanted with myoblast sheets that secreted elastin fragments (ELN-rSkM); and a control group (ligation only). Cardiac function was examined by echocardiography, and cardiac remodeling after infarction was evaluated by histological examination. The cardiac function was significantly improved and the left ventricle end-diastolic dimensions were significantly reduced in the ELN-rSkM group. Histological analysis showed that left ventricular remodeling was attenuated in the ELN-rSkM group and that elastic fiber was formed in the epicardial area of ELN-rSkM group. The functionalization of myoblast sheet by elastin gene transfer showed the long-term improvement of cardiac function. Expressed recombinant elastin fiber prevented the dilation of the left ventricular chamber after myocardial infarction. The functional myoblast sheet transplantation maintained the treatment effect by the paracrine effect of myoblast and the formed recombinant elastin.     

Therapeutic potential of stem/progenitor cells in human skeletal muscle for cardiovascular regeneration

Although myoblast transplantation in patients with ischemic heart failure results in a significant improvement of cardiac function, subsequent studies have consistently shown the myotubes formation in the absence of electromechanical coupling with the neighboring host myocardium, accompanied with the short-term release of paracrine effectors from implanted cells. One major pitfall of using myoblasts is that transplanted cells do not differentiate into cardiomyocytes, which may cause the inherent proarrhythmogenic events. Therefore, whether a discrete subpopulation in heterogeneous muscle-cell cultures is responsible for substantial cardiovascular regeneration has yet to be investigated. We describe here the isolation of progenitor cells from human skeletal muscle. These cells proliferated as non-adherent myospheres in suspension and displayed early embryonic factors and mesenchymal cell-like characteristics. Flow cytometric analyses demonstrated that CD56/N-CAM/Leu-19, a neural cell adhesion molecule abundantly present in myoblasts, was absent in myospheres but was expressed in an adherent cell population containing myogenic precursors. Myosphere-derived progenitor cells (MDPCs) differentiated in culture to produce cardiac, smooth muscle, and endothelial cells. Transplantation of MDPCs into ischemic hearts in NOD/scid mice promoted angiogenesis with substantial cardiovascular regeneration. Our results provide a foundation to further study the cell and biological function of human MDPCs which may have potential therapeutic implications.     

Dedifferentiation of adult human myoblasts induced by ciliary neurotrophic factor in vitro

Ciliary neurotrophic factor (CNTF) is primarily known for its important cellular effects within the nervous system. However, recent studies indicate that its receptor can be highly expressed in denervated skeletal muscle. Here, we investigated the direct effect of CNTF on skeletal myoblasts of adult human. Surprisingly, we found that CNTF induced the myogenic lineage-committed myoblasts at a clonal level to dedifferentiate into multipotent progenitor cells--they not only could proliferate for over 20 passages with the expression absence of myogenic specific factors Myf5 and MyoD, but they were also capable of differentiating into new phenotypes, mainly neurons, glial cells, smooth muscle cells, and adipocytes. These "progenitor cells" retained their myogenic memory and were capable of redifferentiating into myotubes. Furthermore, CNTF could activate the p44/p42 MAPK and down-regulate the expression of myogenic regulatory factors (MRFs). Finally, PD98059, a specific inhibitor of p44/p42 MAPK pathway, was able to abolish the effects of CNTF on both myoblast fate and MRF expression. Our results demonstrate the myogenic lineage-committed human myoblasts can dedifferentiate at a clonal level and CNTF is a novel regulator of skeletal myoblast dedifferentiation via p44/p42 MAPK pathway.     

Macrophages Improve Survival,Proliferation and Migration of Engrafted Myogenic Precursor Cells into MDX Skeletal Muscle

Transplantation of muscle precursor cells is of therapeutic interest for focal skeletal muscular diseases. However, major limitations of cell transplantation are the poor survival, expansion and migration of the injected cells. The massive and early death of transplanted myoblasts is not fully understood although several mechanisms have been suggested. Various attempts have been made to improve their survival or migration. Taking into account that muscle regeneration is associated with the presence of macrophages, which are helpful in repairing the muscle by both cleansing the debris and deliver trophic cues to myoblasts in a sequential way, we attempted in the present work to improve myoblast transplantation by coinjecting macrophages. The present data showed that in the 5 days following the transplantation, macrophages efficiently improved: i) myoblast survival by limiting their massive death, ii) myoblast expansion within the tissue and iii) myoblast migration in the dystrophic muscle. This was confirmed by in vitro analyses showing that macrophages stimulated myoblast adhesion and migration. As a result, myoblast contribution to regenerating host myofibres was increased by macrophages one month after transplantation. Altogether, these data demonstrate that macrophages are beneficial during the early steps of myoblast transplantation into skeletal muscle, showing that coinjecting these stromal cells may be used as a helper to improve the efficiency of parenchymal cell engraftment.